PHOTORECEPTOR GENES INVOLVED IN PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT: FUNCTIONAL ROLES AND PROSPECTS FOR GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF COTTON

ABSTRACT

Light perception and signaling are key determinants of plant growth and environmental adaptation. In cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. and G. barbadense L.), photoreceptors regulate fiber development, photosynthetic activity, and flowering. This review summarizes current insights into the structure, evolution, and function of the major photoreceptor families—phytochromes (PHY), cryptochromes (CRY), phototropins (PHOT), and UVR8—and their crosstalk with hormonal and stress-related pathways. Emphasis is placed on how photoreceptor signaling integrates with transcriptional regulators such as HY5, PIFs, and COP1 to coordinate morphogenesis and stress responses. Advances in genome editing technologies, particularly CRISPR/Cas9 and Cas12a, provide new tools to optimize these pathways. Photoreceptor-based molecular design and synthetic biology offer promising strategies for developing climate-resilient and high-yield cotton cultivars.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Восприятие света и передача сигналов определяют рост и адаптацию растений к условиям среды. У хлопчатника (Gossypium hirsutum L. и G. barbadense L.) фоторецепторы регулируют развитие волокон, фотосинтез и цветение. В обзоре рассмотрены современные данные о структуре, эволюции и функциях основных семейств фоторецепторных генов — фитохромов (PHY), криптохромов (CRY), фототропинов (PHOT) и UVR8 — и их взаимодействии с гормональными и стресс-индуцированными сигнальными путями. Отмечено участие регуляторов HY5, PIF и COP1 в координации морфогенеза и устойчивости к стрессу. Новые технологии редактирования генома, включая CRISPR/Cas9 и Cas12a, открывают возможности оптимизации световых сигнальных путей. Фоторецепторная инженерия представляет перспективное направление для создания устойчивых к климату и высокопродуктивных сортов хлопчатника.

Keywords: Photoreceptors, Phytochrome, Cryptochrome, Phototropin, Cotton, CRISPR/Cas9, Light signaling, Gene regulation.

Ключевые слова: Фоторецепторы, фитохром, криптохром, фототропин, хлопчатник, CRISPR/Cas9, световая сигнализация, регуляция генов.

Introduction

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. and G. barbadense L.) is a key global fiber crop providing fiber, oil, and protein. Its productivity and quality largely depend on how efficiently plants perceive and respond to light signals. Light acts as both an energy source and a developmental cue sensed by photoreceptors that regulate gene expression and morphology. The main photoreceptor families include phytochromes (PHYs) responsive to red/far-red light, cryptochromes (CRYs) sensitive to blue/UV-A, phototropins (PHOTs), and UVR8 detecting UV-B radiation. These systems control photomorphogenesis, chloroplast movement, stomatal opening, flowering, stress tolerance, and photosynthetic performance [1–3].

Recent studies show extensive cross-talk among photoreceptors. For example, CRY1 and phyB in Arabidopsis interact in darkness but dissociate under blue or red light, enabling spectral integration and fine-tuning of signaling. Such coordination affects agronomic traits, including flowering and plant architecture. During cotton domestication, reduced photoperiod sensitivity allowed wider adaptation across latitudes. The CO/FT regulatory axis, RNA methylation, and related epigenetic processes determine photoperiodic flowering and morphology. m⁶A modification alters transcript stability, and epiallelic variation around CO-like loci contributed to domestication-related flowering changes [4].

Photoreceptor-mediated signaling also shapes vegetative architecture, shade avoidance, and photosynthetic traits that determine yield and fiber quality [5]. Variations in red/far-red (R:FR) ratio trigger elongation and leaf repositioning, while optimized LED spectra enhance photosynthesis and growth [6]. Genomic analyses identified GhCRY and GhPIF families involved in fiber development and flowering regulation [7,8]. Phototropins improve light capture by controlling chloroplast movement and leaf orientation; modulating the PHOT photocycle may enhance biomass under low light. UVR8 signaling mitigates shade avoidance, induces flavonoid synthesis, and protects leaves under high UV and heat, improving fiber properties.

However, genetic improvement through photoreceptor pathways faces challenges. Upland cotton’s allotetraploid genome causes gene redundancy, requiring multiplex CRISPR/Cas editing. Transformation efficiency and tissue-specific promoters must be optimized to reduce off-target effects [9]. Moreover, complex PHY–CRY–PHOT–UVR8 cross-talk with transcriptional regulators (HY5, PIFs) can lead to pleiotropic effects, necessitating omics-based validation [10].

This review focuses on: (I) structural and functional features of PHY/CRY/PHOT/UVR8 gene families in cotton, (II) their roles in architecture, photosynthesis, and fiber formation, (III) CRISPR-based strategies for modifying photoreceptors and downstream regulators, and (IV) future “photosensory engineering” approaches integrating phytochrome–cryptochrome, phototropin, and UVR8 signaling for crop improvement [10].

Materials and Methods

This review was developed through a systematic literature analysis focused on photoreceptor signaling and light-regulated gene networks in cotton (Gossypium spp.). Searches were conducted across major scientific databases including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar, covering the period from 2015 to 2025. The following keyword combinations and Boolean operators were used: “cotton photoreceptor”, “Gossypium phytochrome”, “cryptochrome blue-light signaling”, “phototropin cotton stress”, “UVR8 Gossypium”, and “CRISPR cotton light regulation”.

A total of approximately 250 publications were initially retrieved. After duplicate removal and abstract screening, 63 peer-reviewed studies were retained for full-text analysis based on relevance to photoreceptor gene families (PHY, CRY, PHOT, UVR8), signaling mechanisms, and gene-editing applications. Reference mining was used to include additional relevant articles from citations within these primary sources.

Studies were included if they:

• Addressed identification, evolution, or function of photoreceptor families in Gossypium;
• Investigated regulatory mechanisms linking photoreceptors with hormonal or stress pathways; Reported genome-wide, transcriptomic, or CRISPR-based analyses;
• Provided insight into cotton growth, fiber development, or abiotic stress tolerance.

Excluded works comprised reviews on non-cotton species, studies lacking molecular data, and grey literature. Each selected article was manually curated and categorized into four analytical groups: (I) photoreceptor gene structure and evolution, (II) molecular signaling and transcriptional regulation, (III) stress and hormonal crosstalk, and (IV) genome editing and synthetic biology applications.

Publicly available genome and transcriptome databases were utilized to cross-reference reported gene data:

1. CottonFGD (https://cottonfgd.org) - genomic sequences and expression profiles of G. hirsutum and G. barbadense;
2. NCBI Gene and RefSeq – locus and annotation verification; Phytozome v13 – comparative alignment with Arabidopsis and Oryza sativa orthologs;
3. PlantPAN 3.0 and PLACE – promoter motif prediction (G-box, ACE, MBS, ABRE); STRING v12 – protein–protein interaction network mapping;
4. EggNOG 6.0 and Pfam – domain-level annotation of PHY, CRY, PHOT, and UVR8 families.

Comparative data validation ensured cross-species consistency and highlighted evolutionary conservation across cotton genomes.

To evaluate recent research trends and functional clustering, bibliometric and network visualization analyses were performed using R (version 4.3.2) with the following packages:

• ggplot2 – for generating bar plots and trend graphs of photoreceptor research outputs by year and theme;
• igraph and ggraph – to visualize gene–regulator interaction networks (e.g., PHY–PIF–HY5–COP1 modules);
• ComplexHeatmap – to map gene co-expression patterns and functional clustering;
• corrplot – to assess correlation among photoreceptor family expression datasets extracted from CottonFGD.

Visualization outputs were integrated with schematic figures (Figures 1–3) summarizing photoreceptor family expansion, signaling hierarchy, and developmental roles. All scripts were executed on a local Linux workstation equipped with RStudio and validated via reproducibility testing.

The review combined systematic literature curation with bioinformatic cross-validation to synthesize functional insights into photoreceptor signaling. Data were summarized descriptively, emphasizing evolutionary trends, regulatory crosstalk, and recent advances in CRISPR/Cas-mediated modification of photoreceptor genes. Integration of multi-omics findings, bioinformatics annotations, and bibliometric visualizations provided a holistic overview of the light-signaling landscape in Gossypium spp.

This review did not include unpublished datasets or non-English literature. Only peer-reviewed studies and verified database entries were incorporated. Although extensive, the literature corpus may underrepresent recent preprints or field-level experimental trials. Nonetheless, cross-validation via R-based analyses and multiple bioinformatic databases ensured comprehensive and accurate data representation.

Photoreceptor Systems in Plants: Classification and Mechanisms

Light serves as a crucial environmental signal regulating plant development from germination to senescence. Plants possess distinct photoreceptor families that perceive light quality, intensity, and duration [11]. The main classes include phytochromes (PHYs) detecting red/far-red light, cryptochromes (CRYs) and phototropins (PHOTs) responsive to blue/UV-A light, and UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8) sensing UV-B radiation [10]. Despite structural differences, these receptors interact through common signaling regulators, ensuring coordinated growth and adaptation.

Phytochromes are bilin-binding proteins switching between inactive Pr and active Pfr forms. Upon red-light activation, Pfr migrates to the nucleus, triggering gene expression [12]. The PHY–PIF module regulates photomorphogenesis, chloroplast development, and shade avoidance through degradation of PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORS (PIFs) [13]. PHY signaling integrates with hormone pathways such as auxin and gibberellin, affecting elongation and photosynthesis. Overexpression of PHYB improves yield under dense planting by reducing shade avoidance.

Cryptochromes, flavoproteins containing FAD and MTHF cofactors, perceive blue/UV-A light via their PHR and CCE domains. In Arabidopsis, CRY1 and CRY2 mediate elongation inhibition, circadian rhythm, and flowering through the CO/FT pathway. CRYs suppress the COP1–SPA complex, stabilizing HY5, which promotes photomorphogenic gene expression [14]. CRY–COP1–HY5 and PHY–PIF modules interact to integrate red and blue light signals. In cotton, CRY homologs are linked to fiber elongation and flavonoid synthesis under high light [10].

Phototropins (PHOT1/2) are serine/threonine kinases with LOV domains binding FMN that regulate phototropism, chloroplast movement, and stomatal dynamics. Light-induced activation initiates phosphorylation cascades directing chloroplast relocation to optimize light absorption or avoid photodamage. Engineering slower photocycle kinetics in PHOTs enhances biomass accumulation under low light, offering opportunities for light-optimized crop growth.

Figure 1. Photoreceptor Signaling Network (PHY–CRY–HY5–PIF–COP1)

Schematic model showing the integrated light signaling network in cotton. Phytochromes (PHYB), cryptochromes (CRY1), phototropins (PHOT1), and UVR8 perceive spectral signals and activate the central transcriptional regulator HY5. HY5, together with COP1 and PIF4, controls key developmental outputs such as photosynthesis, flowering, and stress responses. Arrows indicate activation, while blunt lines denote repression. The network highlights the hierarchical integration of red/far-red, blue, and UV-B light responses into growth and stress signaling pathways (Figure 1).

UVR8 acts as a UV-B receptor using intrinsic tryptophan residues instead of external chromophores. UV-B exposure induces UVR8 monomerization and interaction with COP1, activating UV-protective genes such as ELIP1, CHS, and HY5. This enhances tolerance to high radiation and drought through flavonoid accumulation and structural reinforcement.

In nature, multiple photoreceptors act simultaneously. PHYs, CRYs, PHOTs, and UVR8 interact through shared hubs—HY5, COP1, and PIFs—forming an integrated signaling network that links to circadian regulators CCA1 and LHY. These interconnected systems synchronize photosynthesis, flowering, and stress adaptation, providing a framework for photoreceptor-based crop improvement [15].

Molecular Basis of Photoreceptor Gene Families in Cotton (Gossypium spp.)

The genus Gossypium comprises over 50 species, including diploids (2n = 26) and allotetraploids (2n = 52) formed through hybridization between ancestral A- and D-genome progenitors. The allopolyploid genomes of G. hirsutum (AADD) and G. barbadense have resulted in duplication and subfunctionalization of numerous gene families, notably photoreceptors. Availability of high-quality reference genomes has enabled genome-wide identification of PHY, CRY, PHOT, and UVR8 genes and their roles in light signaling, fiber development, and stress tolerance.

Comparative analyses across G. hirsutum, G. barbadense, G. arboreum, and G. raimondii identified approximately 6–8 PHY, 4–6 CRY, 4–6 PHOT, and 2–3 UVR8 genes (Figure 2) [10,11,12]. Conserved domains—GAF–PAS–PHY in PHYs, PHR–CCE in CRYs, LOV–kinase in PHOTs, and Trp-rich β-propeller in UVR8—reflect their evolutionary stability [10]. Structural analyses reveal conserved exon–intron organization but variable intron lengths between A- and D-subgenome homologs, indicating asymmetric evolutionary pressure [16].

Figure 2. Photoreceptor Gene Family Expansion in Gossypium hirsutum.

Bar chart illustrating the number of genes belonging to the four major photoreceptor families-phytochromes (PHY), cryptochromes (CRY), phototropins (PHOT), and UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8)—identified in the G. hirsutum genome

Phylogenetic trees based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference show cotton photoreceptors clustering with Arabidopsis, Oryza sativa, and Zea mays orthologs, demonstrating functional conservation. Expansion of PHY and CRY families after allopolyploidization contrasts with the single-copy conservation of UVR8. High collinearity (>80%) between G. hirsutum and Arabidopsis for PHY and CRY loci and low Ka/Ks ratios (<1) suggest strong purifying selection [17,18], though some CRY1 and PHOT2 duplicates show neofunctionalization linked to fiber elongation and chloroplast relocation [19].

Photoreceptor genes are unevenly distributed across chromosomes (notably A05, A08, D04, and D12), collinear with light-responsive loci in Arabidopsis and rice [20]. Promoter analyses identify light (G-box, GT1, ACE), circadian (Evening Element, CCA1 site), and hormone-responsive (ABRE, TGA) motifs in GhPHY and GhCRY promoters [21]. Multiple HY5-binding sites (CACGTG) indicate transcriptional coordination with HY5, while MBS motifs in GhPHOT and GhUVR8 promoters suggest crosstalk between light and drought responses [22].

Transcriptomic data show dynamic photoreceptor expression across fiber development [23]. GhPHYB1 and GhCRY1A are abundant in leaves and stems, regulating shade and photosynthetic adjustment; GhPHOT1A/2B peak during fiber elongation, indicating cytoskeleton and turgor regulation; and GhUVR8-2 is induced by UV-B and drought, consistent with its protective function [24]. Co-expression networks link GhPHYB1 and GhCRY2A to GhPIF4a, GhHY5, and GhCOP1-like genes, confirming conserved signaling modules [25]. Subcellular localization predicts PHY/CRY in the nucleus–cytoplasm and PHOTs in the plasma membrane [26].

Functional assays in Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana support these roles: GhPHYB1 overexpression inhibits hypocotyl elongation, while GhCRY1A silencing delays flowering [27]. CRISPR/Cas9 knockouts of GhPIF4a and GhCRY2B modify HY5 expression, validating conserved regulatory pathways [28]. Integrative omics analyses reveal photoreceptor signaling connections with ROS scavenging, flavonoid biosynthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism—key determinants of fiber quality and stress resilience [29]. These insights position cotton photoreceptor genes as valuable targets for genome editing and synthetic biology-driven crop improvement.

Functional Roles in Growth and Development

Light perception via photoreceptors regulates nearly all aspects of cotton development—from germination to fiber maturation—by integrating hormonal and metabolic networks that determine yield, fiber quality, and stress adaptation [10,11].

Seed germination and seedling establishment are strongly light-dependent. Red/far-red light detected by PHYA and PHYB modulates GA20ox, ABI3, and PIF3 expression, balancing gibberellin and abscisic acid levels. Conversion of Pr to active Pfr triggers photomorphogenesis by nuclear import of PHYB. Arabidopsis phyB mutants exhibit elongated hypocotyls, a phenotype also observed in Gossypium upon GhPHYB1 silencing [19]. Blue-light receptors CRY1/CRY2 suppress hypocotyl elongation by inhibiting COP1 and stabilizing HY5, ensuring chloroplast development. Combined PHY–CRY activity promotes optimal seedling growth and photosynthetic efficiency [12].

Vegetative growth and architecture are regulated by PHYB through degradation of PIF4/PIF5, repressing shade-induced elongation. GhPHYB1 overexpression shortens internodes and increases leaf angles, improving canopy light capture. Blue-light receptors CRY1 and PHOT1 affect leaf expansion and chloroplast movement via actin dynamics, while GhPHOT2B expression in expanding leaves and fiber initials suggests roles beyond photosynthesis [24]. UVR8 enhances photoprotection by inducing CHS and FLS, improving UV tolerance and antioxidant capacity. Crosstalk between light and hormones further refines architecture: PHY signaling suppresses auxin synthesis, whereas CRY signaling promotes cytokinins and branching [20].

Flowering regulation is largely controlled by the CO–FT pathway, modulated by PHYB and CRY2. Domestication converted cotton from short-day to day-neutral behavior through CO/FT network alterations and epigenetic m⁶A regulation of CO-like transcripts [7,27]. GhCRY2A interacts with GhCOP1-like to fine-tune CO–FT expression under light cues [25], while GhPIF4a overexpression delays flowering, confirming its repressive function [11]. CRISPR/Cas9-based editing of PIF and CRY regulators offers precise control of flowering and architecture for yield optimization.

Fiber development is tightly linked to light signaling. Transcriptomic data show red- and blue-light pathway activation during early elongation [29]. GhCRY1A and GhPHOT1A peak 5–10 DPA, correlating with EXPANSIN and ACTIN activity in cell expansion [24]. PHYB and CRY1 interact with COP1–HY5–PIF modules to balance ROS and flavonoid metabolism during fiber formation. GhPHYB1 overexpression enhances fiber thickness via CESA upregulation, while GhCRY2B silencing reduces fiber length [10]. Phototropins also regulate turgor and cell orientation through LOV–kinase signaling and cytoskeletal remodeling.

Spectral integration and circadian regulation further refine development. CRY1–PHYB interaction modulates photomorphogenesis and chlorophyll synthesis. In cotton, GhPHYB1 and GhCRY1A show correlated expression under low R:FR and high blue light, coordinating CO–FT and ROS homeostasis [25]. Circadian genes (CCA1, LHY, TOC1, ELF3) synchronize GhPHYB and GhCRY2 rhythms with photosynthesis and stomatal activity [26], while regulating secondary metabolism and pigment accumulation [22].

Figure 3. Functional roles of photoreceptors in cotton growth and stress response

Bubble diagram illustrating the relative functional importance of four major photoreceptor families-phytochromes (PHY), cryptochromes (CRY), phototropins (PHOT), and UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8)—in regulating key developmental and physiological processes in cotton. Each bubble represents a specific function: flowering control, fiber elongation, photosynthesis, and abiotic stress tolerance. The bubble size corresponds to the relative contribution (Importance value) of each photoreceptor pathway, showing that PHY and CRY predominantly regulate flowering and photomorphogenesis, PHOT contributes to photosynthetic adjustment, while UVR8 plays a central role in UV and oxidative stress protection (Figure 3).

Overall, the interplay between photoreceptors, hormones, and circadian regulators forms an integrated “photomorphogenetic blueprint” that optimizes cotton growth, reproduction, and defense under variable light environments [15].

Photoreceptors and Abiotic Stress Responses in Cotton

Abiotic stresses such as drought, heat, salinity, and excessive radiation greatly constrain cotton productivity and fiber quality. Beyond light sensing, photoreceptors regulate stress tolerance via hormonal, redox, and transcriptional networks [30,31]. Cotton’s adaptation to arid environments relies on efficient light utilization to sustain photosynthesis and minimize oxidative damage.

Redox regulation. Photoreceptors maintain cellular redox homeostasis under fluctuating light and stress. PHYB and CRY1 activate antioxidant enzymes (SOD, APX, CAT) through the HY5 pathway [32]. Arabidopsis phyB mutants overaccumulate ROS, whereas PHYB-overexpressing cotton shows reduced membrane damage [33,34]. CRY1 stabilizes HY5 by interacting with COP1, inducing ELIP1, GST, and FSD1 for photoprotection. Blue light enhances glutathione cycling and expression of GhAPX1 and GhCAT2 during drought stress [35]. Thus, photoreceptors directly modulate detoxification systems to mitigate oxidative injury.

Hormonal and stress signaling. PHYB suppresses shade-induced auxin synthesis via degradation of PIF4/PIF5, balancing growth and root–shoot ratio under drought. CRY1 and UVR8 enhance ABA signaling through activation of ABF2, AREB1, and NCED3, improving stomatal control [36]. PHYB and PIF4a regulate GA20ox and GA2ox to adjust elongation under heat [37]. Under salinity, CRY2 interacts with SnRK2 kinases to induce osmotic-stress genes [38], while UVR8 promotes salicylic and jasmonic acid accumulation, activating WRKY and PR defense genes [39].

Thermosensory and heat tolerance. PHYB functions as a thermosensor; high temperature accelerates Pfr reversion and induces elongation. In cotton, GhPHYB1 declines under heat while GhPIF4a rises, promoting thermomorphogenesis [40]. CRY1 stabilizes circadian oscillations (CCA1, LHY) and enhances heat tolerance via HSP70 and HSP90 activation [41]. Silencing GhCRY1A causes chlorosis and PSII damage [42]. UVR8 supports heat acclimation by inducing phenolic accumulation and maintaining membrane integrity.

Drought and salinity responses. Phototropins trigger stomatal closure through H⁺-ATPase phosphorylation and Ca²⁺ influx, improving water-use efficiency [43]. PHYB activates GhDREB2A and GhNAC6 for osmoprotection [44], while CRY1–CIB1–HY5 signaling induces LEA and RD29A under dehydration [45]. Under salinity, GhCRY2B and GhPHYA2 upregulation with HY5 activation improves ion homeostasis via HKT1 and NHX1 [46]. UVR8 enhances tolerance by inducing GSTU and FLS1, reducing ROS accumulation.

UV and combined stress adaptation. UVR8, with COP1 and HY5, activates photoprotective genes, increasing flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthesis [47]. PHY and CRY pathways indirectly enhance UV defense by optimizing chloroplast positioning. Co-expression of GhPHYB1 and GhCRY2A under combined drought and heat induces GhAPX1, GhSOD2, GhP5CS, and GhHSP70, enhancing detoxification and protein stability. Photoreceptor-deficient mutants alter hundreds of stress-related genes, confirming their integrative role with circadian regulation.

Genetic engineering and applications. CRISPR/Cas9 knockout of GhPIF4a increases drought and heat tolerance by sustaining photosynthesis [15], while multiplex editing of GhCRY1A and GhPHYB1 enhances UV-B resistance without growth penalties. Synthetic PHYB–PIF6 optogenetic modules enable light-controlled activation of stress-resistance genes. Collectively, photoreceptors function as central integrators of light, temperature, and drought signaling, offering powerful tools for engineering climate-resilient cotton.

Prospects for Genetic Improvement and Biotechnology Applications

Recent advances in molecular genetics and genome editing have opened new opportunities to manipulate photoreceptor pathways for cotton improvement. Photoreceptor-mediated signaling regulates major agronomic traits—plant height, flowering time, canopy structure, fiber elongation, and stress resilience—making these genes strategic targets for modern breeding [31].

Genome editing approaches. CRISPR/Cas9 technology enables precise modification of photoreceptor genes and their regulators. Editing GhPIF4a and GhPHYB1 produced compact plants with improved drought tolerance and altered flowering time [48]. Multiplex editing of GhCRY1A, GhPHOT2B, and GhUVR8 using polycistronic tRNA–gRNA systems enhanced photosynthetic performance and UV resistance [32]. Emerging tools such as Cas12a (Cpf1) and prime editing increase precision and reduce off-target effects [49]. Use of tissue-specific promoters (e.g., GhRbcS for leaves, GhEXP for fibers) ensures spatial gene regulation while limiting pleiotropic outcomes [37]. CRISPR-based modulation of regulatory hubs (HY5, COP1, PIF4) fine-tunes light–hormone crosstalk, improving chlorophyll accumulation and yield stability under variable environments [50].

Transgenic and RNAi applications. Prior to CRISPR, transgenic overexpression and RNA interference were used to manipulate photoreceptor signaling. Overexpression of GhPHYB1 in Arabidopsis and Nicotiana reduced hypocotyl elongation and increased biomass under red light [76], whereas GhCRY1A enhanced blue-light photomorphogenesis and oxidative stress tolerance [42]. RNAi-mediated suppression of GhPIF4a or GhCOP1-like improved fiber elongation and photosynthetic efficiency [43]. However, regulatory barriers and limited public acceptance reduced the applicability of transgenic methods, positioning CRISPR as a transgene-free and socially acceptable alternative [51].

Synthetic biology and optogenetics. Synthetic biology now enables construction of light-responsive circuits for dynamic trait control. Optogenetic systems based on photoreceptors—such as red/far-red-responsive PHYB–PIF6 and blue-light CRY2–CIB1 modules—offer reversible light-inducible transcriptional switches [52,53]. Incorporating these modules in crops could yield “programmable” plants capable of adjusting metabolism and growth to spectral changes, improving energy efficiency in controlled or vertical farming environments [54].

Epigenetic and regulatory reprogramming. Novel CRISPR-based epigenome editing tools, including dCas9–SunTag and CRISPR–dCas13, allow activation or repression of genes without altering DNA sequence. Epigenetic activation of GhCO-like loci using dCas9–VP64 restored flowering synchronization under long-day conditions [55]. Synthetic promoter engineering with light-responsive motifs (G-box, GT1, ACE) further enables precise control of photoreceptor expression and diurnal sensitivity [45].

Future perspectives. Integration of genome editing, synthetic biology, and phenomics is advancing the concept of “Smart Cotton”—a crop engineered for optimized light utilization, compact yet productive architecture, synchronized flowering, and multi-stress tolerance [47]. Combining multi-omics datasets (transcriptomics, proteomics, phenomics) with AI-driven gene network modeling will accelerate rational design of photoreceptor-based genotypes, bridging fundamental photobiology with applied cotton breeding.

Future Directions and Bioinformatics Perspectives

Although research on cotton photoreceptors has advanced rapidly, key gaps remain in understanding how light perception integrates with growth and stress adaptation. The combination of multi-omics, artificial intelligence (AI), and systems biology will be essential to unravel these complex regulatory networks [46].

Systems biology integration. Modern genomics produces vast transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic datasets under diverse light and stress conditions. Integrating these layers through network modeling can identify central regulators connecting photoreceptors with hormonal and defense pathways [56]. Co-expression analyses (WGCNA) in Gossypium hirsutum highlight GhPHYB1 and GhCRY2A as core hubs associated with over 500 light-responsive genes, including HY5, PIF4, and BBX21. Proteomic data indicate light-dependent phosphorylation of phototropins and cryptochromes, revealing post-translational control. Future integration of metabolomics and phosphoproteomics will clarify how photoreceptor activity influences carbon partitioning, energy balance, and fiber elongation under stress [57].

AI and machine learning applications. Deep learning tools such as AlphaFold2, ProteinBERT, and DeepPhyto are revolutionizing functional genomics by predicting 3D protein structures and gene–trait relationships [58]. In silico modeling has revealed uncharacterized photoreceptor-like domains in cotton, suggesting novel light-sensing elements [59]. ML models trained on transcriptome data can predict regulatory circuits linking photoreceptors to abiotic stress, guiding rational CRISPR designs [60]. These approaches promise to generate comprehensive in silico atlases of photoreceptor networks for targeted engineering.

Computational modeling and precision breeding. Photoreceptors operate within complex gene regulatory networks (GRNs) integrating light, temperature, hormones, and stress. Future work will emphasize multi-trait engineering supported by simulations predicting systemic outcomes of specific gene edits [61]. Modeling suggests that coordinated optimization of PHYB–PIF4 and CRY1–COP1 modules could yield compact, high-efficiency, and stress-resilient cotton [62]. Coupling these models with digital phenotyping platforms—hyperspectral imaging and drone-based canopy monitoring—will enable real-time feedback between molecular design and field performance, advancing precision photoreceptor breeding.

Challenges and ethical considerations. The polyploid nature of the cotton genome and redundancy among photoreceptor homologs complicate targeted editing. Environmental variability affects light-regulated traits, necessitating long-term field validation. Synthetic and optogenetic modules capable of external control require rigorous biosafety assessment and regulatory oversight [63]. Open-access data, transparency, and international collaboration will be vital for responsible innovation.

The convergence of AI-assisted genome design, precision editing, and systems-level modeling will drive the creation of light-optimized, resource-efficient cotton cultivars. Integrating photobiology with computational genomics will not only deepen understanding of light signaling but also transform cotton into a model for sustainable, light-adaptive agriculture.

Conclusion

Photoreceptors form the central sensory framework through which plants perceive and adapt to their light environment. In cotton (Gossypium spp.), the four main classes—phytochromes, cryptochromes, phototropins, and UVR8—serve as molecular integrators controlling growth, morphogenesis, and stress responses. Their interaction with key transcriptional regulators such as HY5, PIFs, and COP1 orchestrates photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythm, photosynthesis, and flowering, ultimately determining yield and fiber quality.

Recent genomic and transcriptomic analyses have elucidated the evolutionary diversification and functional specialization of photoreceptor genes in cotton. Cross-talk between PHYB–CRY1 and UVR8–hormone signaling pathways demonstrates that light perception is tightly linked to hormonal balance, antioxidant defense, and secondary metabolism, enabling adaptability under varying environmental conditions.

The advent of CRISPR/Cas9, Cas12a, and epigenome-editing technologies has revolutionized the ability to precisely manipulate photoreceptor pathways. Editing of GhPHYB1, GhCRY1A, and GhPIF4a has already improved stress tolerance, optimized architecture, and synchronized flowering. Coupled with synthetic biology and optogenetic modules, these pathways can now be redesigned as light-responsive molecular switches—forming the foundation for “Smart Cotton” cultivars that autonomously adjust to changing light and stress conditions.

Integration of multi-omics data with AI-based modeling and systems biology will further accelerate identification of novel gene targets for multi-trait improvement. Photoreceptor-based biotechnology thus represents a transformative frontier in cotton research—bridging light signaling, precision genome design, and sustainable agriculture to develop high-yield, resilient, and climate-adaptive cotton varieties.

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