BIOTECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN THE FIGHT AGAINST EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES: A FOCUS ON RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

ABSTRACT

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) pose a significant threat to global health, driven by environmental changes, pathogen evolution, and human behavior. Over the past two decades, high-profile EIDs such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), and Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) have exposed critical vulnerabilities in health systems. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology has revolutionized the fight against EIDs by enabling the rapid development of diagnostics, vaccines, and therapeutics. This review focuses on three major EIDs—COVID-19, Ebola, and Zika—highlighting the transformative impact of rDNA technology. Case studies illustrate the application of rDNA in creating mRNA vaccines, advanced diagnostic tools, and nucleoside analogs. The review also addresses the ethical considerations, potential risks, and future research directions in leveraging rDNA technology for global health preparedness. By bridging the gap between scientific innovation and infrastructure deployment, rDNA technology holds the promise of enhancing global responses to current and future EID threats.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Возникающие инфекционные заболевания (EIDs) представляют серьезную угрозу для глобального здравоохранения, обусловленную изменениями окружающей среды, эволюцией патогенов и поведением человека. За последние два десятилетия громкие ОРВИ, такие как Тяжелый острый респираторный синдром (SARS), болезнь, вызванная вирусом Эбола (EVD), и коронавирусная болезнь 2019 года (COVID-19), выявили критические уязвимости в системах здравоохранения. Технология рекомбинантной ДНК (рДНК) произвела революцию в борьбе с EIDs, позволив быстро разрабатывать диагностические средства, вакцины и терапевтические препараты. В этом обзоре основное внимание уделяется трем основным заболеваниям — COVID-19, Эболе и Зика, — в которых подчеркивается преобразующее воздействие технологии рДНК. Тематические исследования иллюстрируют применение рДНК при создании мРНК-вакцин, передовых диагностических инструментов и аналогов нуклеозидов. В обзоре также рассматриваются этические соображения, потенциальные риски и направления будущих исследований по использованию технологии рДНК для обеспечения готовности глобального здравоохранения. Сокращая разрыв между научными инновациями и развертыванием инфраструктуры, технология rDNA обещает усилить глобальные меры реагирования на текущие и будущие угрозы EID.

Keywords: Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA), Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs), COVID-19, Ebola Virus Disease, mRNA Vaccines, Diagnostic Tools, Therapeutical approach, Prevention.

Ключевые слова: Технология рекомбинантной ДНК (рДНК), новые инфекционные заболевания (EIDS), COVID-19, болезнь, вызванная вирусом Эбола, Вакцины с мРНК, Диагностические инструменты, Терапевтический подход, Профилактика.

Introduction

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are illnesses that have recently emerged in a community or whose prevalence has significantly grown in a given geographic region. These illnesses are a substantial and rising danger to global health security, caused by a complex interaction of variables such as environmental change, pathogen development, and human behavior [1]. Over the last two decades, the globe has seen the introduction of numerous high-profile EIDs, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), and, most recently, Coronavirus Disease-2019. These epidemics have shown fundamental weaknesses in global health systems, emphasizing the urgent need for novel ways to identify, prevent, and treat EIDs [2, 3].

Infectious illnesses have emerged and re-emerged at unprecedented rates in the twenty-first century. Since 2000, approximately 40 new illnesses have been detected, including SARS, MERS, Ebola, avian flu, swine flu, and Zika [1]. The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2, demonstrated the destructive consequences of EIDs, taking millions of lives and generating worldwide political, economic, and social catastrophes [2]. Factors such as increased worldwide travel, urbanization, human-animal interactions, and climate change have all contributed to the development of these illnesses, stressing the critical need for novel remedies.

One of the most significant advances in the battle against EIDs has been the creation and implementation of recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology. This revolutionary technique has transformed diagnostics, vaccine research, and treatments by enabling scientists to respond quickly to new dangers [4]. rDNA technology allows for precise manipulation of genetic material, which aids in the development of improved diagnostic tools such as Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and innovative vaccines, including mRNA vaccines like those utilized against COVID-19 [5,6]. Furthermore, rDNA technology has enabled the development of nucleoside analogs that inhibit viral replication and have been found to be effective against a variety of EIDs, including Ebola and COVID-19 [7,8].

This review focuses on three major EIDs over the last decade; COVID-19, Ebola, and Zika that have resulted in severe loss of life and shown systemic weaknesses in global preparedness. We look at how rDNA technology has transformed our capacity to tackle these illnesses, from quick diagnosis to the generation of very potent vaccinations and therapies. However, we also critically explore the ongoing gap between technological innovation and the infrastructure required to properly deploy these tools. By analyzing both the successes and failures of recent outbreak responses, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how rDNA technology can be harnessed to address the challenges posed by EIDs and how it can bridge the gap between scientific innovation and global preparedness to better combat future infectious disease threats.

Causes of Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs)

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are the result of a complex interaction of environmental, evolutionary, and human behavioral variables that promote pathogen transmission. Understanding these causes is critical to establishing effective preventative and control tactics.

Environmental Changes and Pathogen Evolution

Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and climate change cause major ecological disruption, resulting in new habitats for diseases and their animal hosts. For example, deforestation brings wildlife into closer contact with humans, raising the danger of zoonotic spillover occurrences. This phenomenon has been related to several illnesses, including Ebola, SARS, and COVID-19 [2]. Urbanization concentrates populations in densely inhabited places, which facilitates the fast spread of infectious pathogens. Cities with poor sanitation and healthcare facilities are more susceptible to breakouts. Furthermore, climate change modifies the distribution of disease vectors, broadening the spectrum of infections such as Zika, dengue, and Lyme [3]. Pathogens are extremely versatile, able to thrive in novel habitats and hosts. RNA viruses, such as influenza and coronaviruses, have a high mutation rate, allowing them to bypass immunity and generate recurring epidemics. Overuse of antibiotics in agriculture and medicine promotes antimicrobial resistance (AMR), making illnesses more difficult to cure [9].

Globalization and Human Behavior

Globalization hastens the spread of infectious illnesses by increasing worldwide travel, trade, and migration, allowing germs to transit borders faster. The global traffic in animals and animal products promotes the development of zoonotic diseases. The wildlife trade, for example, has been linked to the spread of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 [2]. Human practices such as illicit wildlife trading, extensive farming, and insufficient sanitation promote infection spread. The consumption of bushmeat has been connected to epidemics of Ebola and other zoonotic illnesses. Furthermore, abuse of antibiotics promotes AMR, making infections more difficult to treat [3,9, 10].

Socioeconomic and Political Impacts

EIDs have far-reaching repercussions beyond public health, including global economies, political stability, and social systems. Outbreaks burden healthcare systems, increasing morbidity and death [11]. Quarantines and travel restrictions, while necessary, interrupt daily life and result in substantial economic losses. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic caused significant employment losses and a fall in tourism, costing the world economy trillions of dollars [2, 3].

The enormous cost of producing and delivering vaccines and medicines exacerbates the economic burden of EIDs, particularly in low- and middle-income countries that lack a comprehensive healthcare infrastructure. This imbalance exacerbates global health inequities and hampers efforts to combat infectious illnesses [3]. Politically, EIDs can strain international ties, especially when epidemics are considered to originate in or be mismanaged by certain nations. Travel bans and trade restrictions meant to combat disease transmission might cause diplomatic tensions and additional economic harm. The COVID-19 epidemic emphasized the fragility of international collaboration as countries battled for scarce resources. [9]

Recently Encountered Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs)

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) continue to pose serious dangers to global health, with recent outbreaks emphasizing the importance of strong surveillance, quick response, and fair access to medical therapies. This section delves into three significant EIDs discovered in recent years: Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), COVID-19, and Monkeypox. Each of these illnesses exemplifies the intricate relationship between pathogen biology, human behavior, and global health infrastructure.

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), caused by the Ebola virus (EBOV), is a highly contagious and frequently lethal illness. EBOV belongs to the Ebolavirus genus, which has six species: Bundibugyo, Reston, Sudan, Zaire, Bombali, and Tai. The Marburg virus, albeit from a distinct genus, is closely related to EBOV [12]. EBOV is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus with a genome of around 19 kilobases (kb). The genome encodes eight proteins, including glycoprotein, nucleoprotein, polymerase, and auxiliary proteins, all of which are required for viral replication and disease. The virus is filamentous in structure and forms a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex, allowing for efficient transcription and replication [13]. EBOV is spread by direct contact with infected body fluids, tissues, or contaminated surfaces, with human-to-human transmission being the most risky due to high virus loads in fluids such as saliva, urine, sperm, and breast milk [12]. Since its discovery in the 1970s in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC), EBOV has generated roughly 17 outbreaks, predominantly in Central and West Africa, with an estimated 33,000 infections and 14,000 fatalities [12]. Recent epidemics in countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo have swamped healthcare systems, caused considerable economic losses, and contributed to social stigmatization of affected people.

COVID-19

COVID-19, which was caused by the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, first appeared in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and quickly spread worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus with a genomic size of around 30 kb [14]. The genome encodes both structural proteins (spike, envelope, membrane, and nucleocapsid) and non-structural proteins involved in replication and transcription [2,3]. The spike protein is crucial for viral entrance into host cells, which contributes to the virus's high transmissibility. SARS-CoV-2 is zoonotic in origin, most likely transmitted to humans by animals, and has subsequently spread through human-to-human contact via respiratory droplets [2]. COVID-19 has afflicted people of all ages, ethnicities, and genders, although elderly people and those who are immunocompromised are more likely to develop serious disease [11]. The epidemic has claimed millions of lives and caused significant socioeconomic upheaval, including widespread job losses, diminished commerce, and a fall in tourism [5]. The introduction of mRNA vaccines, such as those created by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna, was a watershed moment in biotechnology. However, unequal vaccination delivery and widespread misunderstanding have hampered worldwide attempts to contain the virus [15].

Monkeypox

Monkeypox, caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), is an uncommon but serious zoonotic infection that has lately resurfaced as a public health issue. MPXV is a double-stranded DNA virus from the Poxviridae family, which also contains the variola (smallpox) and vaccinia viruses [16]. The MPXV genome is around 200 kilobase pairs (kbp) long and divided into two regions: unique long (UL) and unique short (US). The UL region encodes proteins required for replication, transcription, and viral assembly, whereas the US region contains genes unique to MPXV that regulate host range and pathogenicity [16,17]. MPXV is transmitted by contact with infected animals or people. Symptoms include fever, rash, and severe disease that require hospitalization. Historically, monkeypox was mostly found in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. However, recent outbreaks in non-endemic countries, like Europe and North America, have raised fears about the disease's worldwide expansion [18]. The 2022 monkeypox epidemic demonstrated the virus's ability to inflict severe public health and economic disruptions, such as quarantine measures, travel restrictions, and reduced commerce and tourism. The stigmatization of impacted populations, especially LGBTQ+ people, has hindered public health interventions [19].

Table 1.

 Details of the most recently encountered EIDs in the recent decade causing life threatening situations and global catastrophes

Recombinant DNA Technology and Its Role in Combating Emerging Infectious Diseases

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology has transformed the area of biotechnology by providing strong tools for diagnosing, preventing, and treating new infectious illnesses. By allowing for precise modification of genetic material, rDNA technology has created new paths for producing diagnostics, vaccines, and therapies, considerably improving our capacity to tackle EIDs like COVID-19, Ebola, and Zika [4]. This section investigates the concepts of rDNA technology, its applications for minimizing EIDs, and its transformational influence on public health.

Principles of Recombinant DNA Technology

Recombinant DNA techniques include inserting a DNA fragment into an organism's genome to introduce or improve specified features. This procedure commonly employs vectors, such as plasmids or viral vectors, to transport the desired DNA sequence to the host cell. Over the last few decades, several genetic engineering techniques have been used, including homologous recombination, random integration by microinjection, and transposon-mediated DNA insertion. However, these techniques were frequently inefficient and inconvenient, relying significantly on drug selection markers [20]. The introduction of CRISPR-Cas9, a gene-editing technique that allows for precise targeting and change of DNA regions, has solved many of these constraints. CRISPR-Cas9 has become a cornerstone of modern biotechnology, allowing scientists to alter genomes with remarkable precision and efficiency [21]. This technology has found widespread applications in studying and combating EIDs, cancer, and genetic disorders.

rDNA Technology applications in EIDs diagnosis, treatment and prevention.

rDNA technology has helped to create advanced diagnostic and treatment techniques for EIDs. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology has considerably enhanced the area of diagnostics, allowing for the quick, accurate, and sensitive identification of new infectious illnesses. This section delves into two essential diagnostic tools; Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and Immunofluorescence and their critical role in battling EIDs such as COVID-19, Ebola, and monkeypox.

The reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a very sensitive and specific molecular diagnostic method for detecting viral genetic material in clinical samples such nasopharyngeal swabs (NPS), blood, serum, and sputum. Its capacity to amplify even trace quantities of genetic material makes it critical for identifying EIDs. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recognized RT-PCR as the gold standard for screening and diagnosing infectious illnesses such as COVID-19, Ebola, and monkeypox [22]. Unlike classic culture techniques, which might take days to provide findings, RT-PCR has a quick turnaround time, allowing for the prompt application of control measures to reduce epidemics [23]. RT-PCR can discriminate between closely related diseases, making it ideal for detecting new EIDs like SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, and RSV [22]. Real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) allows for the quantification of viral load, providing insights into the intensity of infection and guiding treatment decisions [23].

Mechanism and Innovations: RT-PCR includes the reverse transcription of viral RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA), which is then amplified using PCR. Real-time RT-PCR uses fluorescent dyes or probes to attach to amplified nucleic acids and generate fluorescence proportionate to the quantity of target DNA or RNA. This allows for real-time monitoring of amplification, which reduces post-amplification analytical mistakes and increases sensitivity [24]. RT-PCR has helped diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infections, allowing for easier contact tracing, surveillance, and treatment options [22]. It has facilitated the quick identification of the Ebola virus in outbreak conditions, hence aiding containment efforts. RT-PCR identifies Monkeypox viral DNA in clinical samples, facilitating in early diagnosis and epidemic control.

Ebola Virus illness (EVD) is a highly contagious and frequently lethal illness that has caused many outbreaks in Central and West Africa. rDNA technology has helped to develop advanced diagnostic methods for detecting the Ebola virus, including RT-PCR and CRISPR-based tests. RT-PCR and CRISPR-based diagnostic technologies may detect the Ebola virus in clinical samples quickly and accurately, allowing for early diagnosis and outbreak control [12]. These techniques have been applied in the field, allowing healthcare personnel to promptly detect and isolate affected persons, therefore decreasing the virus's spread. The application of rDNA technology in diagnostics has increased our capacity to monitor and control Ebola epidemics. Continuous innovation and investment in diagnostic technologies are critical for successful disease surveillance and response [24].

Immunofluorescence is an effective laboratory method that employs fluorescent markers to detect specific proteins or molecular markers within cells or tissues. Its speedy, simple, and accurate diagnostic capabilities have made it an effective weapon in the battle against EIDs [25]. Immunofluorescence enables the exact identification of viral and bacterial proteins in infected cells, resulting in an accurate diagnosis. The approach gives real-time information on the distribution and expression of target proteins, which aids in the investigation of disease causes [8]. Immunofluorescence can be used with other procedures, such as immunohistochemistry (IHC) and histology, to improve diagnostic accuracy and provide novel diagnostic assays [21]. Immunofluorescence has been routinely utilized to examine nasopharyngeal swabs from COVID-19 patients. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies directed against SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid proteins and spike proteins have been used to identify viral antigens with excellent accuracy [25]. It has also been used to investigate the distribution of Ebola virus proteins in affected tissues, providing information on disease progression and treatment efficacy. The approach was used to screen for Monkeypox viral antigens in clinical samples, facilitating in quick diagnosis and outbreak control [16].

Mechanism and Innovations: Immunofluorescence is the use of fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies to bind certain antigens found in clinical samples. When attached antibodies are subjected to a certain wavelength of light, they generate fluorescence, allowing target proteins to be seen under a microscope. Advances in antibody creation and fluorescent labeling have boosted the sensitivity and specificity of this approach, making it a cornerstone of contemporary diagnostics [25].

mRNA Vaccines

mRNA vaccines represent a paradigm change in vaccinology, providing a quick, adaptable, and highly successful strategy to fighting EID. Unlike conventional vaccinations, which rely on live or inactivated viruses, mRNA vaccines employ synthetic messenger RNA to guide cells to create viral proteins, generating a strong immune response [6].

Non-Amplifying mRNA Vaccines: These vaccines have a 5' cap, untranslated regions (UTRs), the gene of interest, and a poly(A) tail. The 5' cap stabilizes the mRNA and improves translation efficiency, whilst the poly(A) tail inhibits degradation by cellular enzymes [6]. Chemical changes, such as N1-methyl pseudouridine and GC enrichment, shield mRNA from breakdown and limit immune system recognition, hence increasing vaccination effectiveness [26]. Non-amplifying mRNA vaccines have been effectively employed in COVID-19 vaccines (e.g., Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna), and are being investigated for additional EIDs including Zika and dengue [27].

Self-Amplifying mRNA Vaccines: These vaccines feature genes that encode viral RNA replication machinery, allowing for extended and amplified antigen production even at low dosages. They are built on viral RNA backbones, such as those seen in alphaviruses (e.g., Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus) [6, 26]. Once transported into cells, the mRNA is translated into non-structural proteins that form a replication complex, resulting in subgenomic mRNA and a robust immune response [26]. Self-amplifying mRNA vaccines require smaller dosages and generate longer-lasting immunity, making them appropriate for resource-limited environments [28].

mRNA vaccines are taken up by cells and translated into viral proteins. These proteins are found on the cell surface, causing immunological detection and the generation of neutralizing antibodies. This method replicates natural infection, resulting in strong and specific immunity without the danger of live pathogens [6,26,28]. mRNA vaccines may be created and manufactured in weeks, allowing for quick responses to emergent threats. They elicit powerful immunological responses and may be easily adapted to target novel variations. mRNA vaccinations do not integrate into the host genome, which eliminates the possibility of insertional mutagenesis [26,27].

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2, began in late 2019 and quickly grew into a global calamity. The pressing need for a vaccine prompted the creation of mRNA vaccines utilizing rDNA technology. Scientists used rDNA technology to swiftly discover the genomic sequence of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein [2,3]. This sequence was utilized to generate synthetic mRNA, which signals cells to manufacture the spike protein, inducing an immunological response without the presence of live pathogens. Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna were the first mRNA vaccines to be produced and approved for emergency use within a year of the virus's discovery. Clinical investigations revealed that these vaccinations had an effectiveness rate of over 90% in avoiding symptomatic COVID-19 [26,27]. Millions of doses were manufactured and disseminated globally, dramatically lowering the severity and spread of the infection. The success of mRNA vaccines demonstrated the promise of rDNA technology for quickly reacting to future pandemics. It also underlined the importance of global collaboration and fair vaccination distribution to achieve successful disease management [6].

Nucleoside Analogs

Nucleoside analogs are synthetic compounds that imitate the building components of DNA and RNA, preventing viral replication. These therapies have demonstrated excellent effectiveness against a variety of EIDs, including COVID-19, Ebola, and monkeypox [7]. During replication, nucleoside analogs are integrated into viral RNA or DNA, resulting in the viral genome's premature termination. This inhibits the action of viral polymerases, including RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), thereby stopping viral replication [16]. Sofosbuvir: Initially developed for hepatitis C, Sofosbuvir has showed potential against SARS-CoV-2 by blocking its RdRp [7]. Remdesivir: A broad-spectrum antiviral, Remdesivir has been used to treat COVID-19 and Ebola, demonstrating its versatility against RNA viruses [17]. AZT (Zidovudine): Initially developed for HIV, AZT has been repurposed to target other viral infections, including Monkeypox. These analogs are effective against multiple viruses, making them valuable tools for combating EIDs [7,16]. Their specificity for viral polymerases minimizes toxicity to host cells (Hatmal et al., 2022). Nucleoside analogs can be synthesized and tested quickly, enabling rapid deployment during outbreaks. 

Nucleoside analogs are synthetic compounds that imitate the building components of DNA and RNA, preventing viral replication. They have demonstrated remarkable effectiveness against a variety of EIDs. Scientists used rDNA technology to create nucleoside analogs like Remdesivir and Sofosbuvir, which target viral polymerases and impede replication. Remdesivir has been utilized to treat severe COVID-19 cases, shortening recovery times and improving patient outcomes [2, 7]. Nucleoside analogs have been shown to be efficient against a variety of RNA viruses, making them useful weapons for battling EIDs. The creation of nucleoside analogs emphasizes the relevance of rDNA technology in developing flexible antiviral treatments. Continued research and development are required to increase the arsenal of antiviral medications for future EID epidemics.

Table 2.

Treatment measures against EIDs as per the recent advancements in rDNA technology

Ethical Considerations, Risks, and Future Directions

Ethical Considerations and Potential Risks

While recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology has enormous potential for tackling emerging infectious diseases (EIDs), it also poses significant ethical concerns and hazards that must be properly addressed. Biosafety and biosecurity: The alteration of genetic material can pose biosafety and biosecurity hazards, such as the unintentional release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or the deliberate use of rDNA technology for bioterrorism. Strict regulatory frameworks and safety measures are required to mitigate these dangers [29].

Equity and Access: The development and implementation of rDNA-based diagnostics, vaccines, and treatments must be guided by equity and access principles. Ensuring that low- and middle-income nations have equal access to these breakthroughs is critical to preventing global health inequities from worsening. Environmental Impact: The introduction of GMOs into the environment may have unforeseen ecological implications. Rigorous environmental risk assessments and monitoring are required to avert possible ecological damage. Informed Consent and Privacy: The employment of rDNA technology in therapeutic contexts poses issues of informed consent and patient privacy. Transparent communication with patients and strong data protection procedures are needed to address these concerns.

Future Research Directions

Advanced Diagnostic Tools: Continued developments in rDNA-based diagnostic technologies, notably CRISPR-Cas systems, are critical for improving the precision, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of emerging infectious disease (EID) detection. The development of portable, point-of-care diagnostic tools should be prioritized in order to improve disease surveillance and response capabilities, especially in resource-constrained contexts.

Next-Generation Vaccines: The development of next-generation vaccine platforms, such as self-amplifying mRNA and universal vaccine candidates, is crucial for speedy and adaptive responses to emerging EID threats. Furthermore, new vaccine delivery techniques, such as nasal sprays and microneedle patches, should be studied to increase vaccination accessibility, administration, and public compliance.

Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Therapeutics: The development of broad-spectrum antiviral medicines capable of targeting various viruses is critical for addressing the wide range of EIDs. Research should focus on uncovering new antiviral mechanisms, like as RNA interference and host-directed therapeutics, to broaden the repertory of therapeutic strategies.

Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: The development of comprehensive ethical and regulatory frameworks is critical to ensuring the proper use of rDNA technology. This involves developing guidelines for biosafety, biosecurity, and environmental risk assessments, as well as addressing concerns like equitable access, informed consent, and data privacy.

Global Collaboration and Capacity Building: Strengthening international cooperation and encouraging open-access research projects are critical for effectively combating EIDs on a global basis. Efforts should be oriented on improving capacity building in low- and middle-income countries, encouraging fair resource distribution, and allowing the interchange of knowledge and experience to enable a coordinated and inclusive response to EID issues.

CONCLUSION

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology has emerged as a transformative and indispensable tool in combating emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). From the rapid development of mRNA vaccines to the deployment of advanced diagnostic tools such as RT-PCR, rDNA technology has revolutionized our capacity to detect, prevent, and treat EIDs. This review underscores the pivotal role of rDNA-based interventions in addressing recent global health crises, including COVID-19, Ebola, and Monkeypox, demonstrating their potential to mitigate the impact of infectious disease outbreaks. While these advancements highlight the remarkable progress in biotechnology, they also reveal critical gaps in infrastructure and equitable access, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Bridging these gaps is essential to ensure that the benefits of rDNA technology are universally accessible.

Looking ahead, the responsible application of rDNA technology must prioritize ethical considerations, robust biosafety protocols, and fostering global collaboration. By addressing these challenges and investing in sustained innovation, the scientific community can harness the full potential of rDNA technology to enhance pandemic preparedness and response. In conclusion, rDNA technology represents a cornerstone in the fight against EIDs, offering a promising pathway to address the evolving challenges of infectious diseases. Through continued research, equitable implementation, and ethical stewardship, we can build a more resilient global health system capable of safeguarding populations worldwide

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