TRADITIONAL LACQUER AND CARVED LACQUER PAINTING: MATERIAL TRANSFORMATION IN VIETNAMESE FINE ARTS

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on examining the formation, development, and transformation of traditional lacquer materials and carved lacquer techniques in Vietnamese fine arts. Originating from traditional lacquer craft villages, lacquer art has undergone various technical and aesthetic transformations, particularly since the first half of the 20th century, when it emerged as a distinctive visual language in modern Vietnamese art. The article analyzes the connection between traditional crafting methods and contemporary creativity, emphasizing the role of carving techniques in shaping a new identity for lacquer painting. Selected works by artists such as Nguyễn Gia Trí, Nguyễn Khang, and Trần Hữu Chất are discussed to illustrate how artists explore lacquer materials, engage with surfaces, and construct visual space. Through this lens, the article proposes a perspective on carved lacquer as evidence of material transformation, where traditional art is not static but continuously redefined within the creative flow of Vietnamese fine arts.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Эта статья посвящена изучению формирования, развития и трансформации традиционных лаковых материалов и техник резьбы по лаку во вьетнамском изобразительном искусстве. Лаковое искусство возникло в традиционных деревнях и претерпело различные технические и эстетические преобразования, особенно начиная с первой половины 20-го века, когда оно стало самобытным визуальным языком в современном вьетнамском искусстве. В статье анализируется связь между традиционными методами рукоделия и современным творчеством, подчеркивается роль техник резьбы по дереву в формировании новой идентичности лаковой живописи. Избранные работы таких художников, как Нгуен Гиа Три, Нгуен Кханг, Ань Чан Хуу Нат, обсуждаются в качестве иллюстрации к выставке, где художники исследуют лакокрасочные материалы, взаимодействуют с поверхностями и создают визуальное пространство. В статье предлагается взглянуть на резной лак как на свидетельство трансформации материала, где традиционное искусство не является статичным, а постоянно переосмысливается в творческом потоке вьетнамского изобразительного искусства.

Keywords: traditional lacquer, lacquer painting, carved lacquer, material, Vietnamese fine arts, cultural transformation.

Ключевые слова: традиционный лак, лаковая роспись, резной лак, материал, вьетнамское изобразительное искусство, культурная трансформация.

1. Introduction

Traditional lacquer materials and the technique of carved lacquer painting hold a distinct and enduring position within the history of Vietnamese fine arts. Their significance extends beyond mere aesthetic appeal, encompassing a deep-rooted connection to the cultural, spiritual, and social fabric of the nation. Over centuries, lacquer art has evolved from its origins in folk craft traditions, where it was primarily associated with household objects, ritual artefacts, and temple decorations, into a refined and recognized medium of artistic expression. This transformation reached a pivotal moment during the early to mid-20th century, when lacquer painting was formally introduced into the curriculum of the École des Beaux-Arts de l’Indochine, leading to its establishment as a cornerstone of modern Vietnamese visual culture (Nguyen Xuan Nghi, 2008).

Pioneering artists such as Nguyễn Gia Trí, Nguyễn Khang, Trần Hữu Chất, and Thái Hà played instrumental roles in elevating lacquer art to international acclaim. Their works not only demonstrate exceptional technical mastery and innovation but also reflect the intellectual and philosophical shifts of their time. Awarded prestigious international prizes and celebrated for their originality, these artists laid the foundation for future generations to explore and redefine the possibilities of lacquer as both a material and a medium.

In contemporary Vietnam, the legacy of carved lacquer painting continues to thrive. A new wave of artists draws upon traditional techniques while incorporating personal narratives, global influences, and experimental forms, thereby expanding the expressive capacity of the medium. The relevance of lacquer art today is further underscored by its presence in both fine art contexts and broader cultural and economic domains, from gallery exhibitions and museum collections to high-end craft markets and international design fairs (Le Huyen, 1995).

This article seeks to explore the dynamic process through which traditional lacquer and the technique of carved lacquer painting have been adapted and transformed within the broader trajectory of Vietnamese art history. By tracing their evolution from vernacular roots to modern decorative forms, and by analyzing key artworks that exemplify this journey, the paper aims to highlight the dual role of lacquer as both an aesthetic medium and a bearer of cultural identity. Special emphasis is placed on the contribution of carving techniques to the visual and tactile qualities of lacquer paintings, qualities that evoke not only beauty and craftsmanship but also profound emotional and symbolic resonance.

Furthermore, the article adopts an interdisciplinary approach that integrates historical, formal, and conceptual perspectives. This allows for a nuanced understanding of how carved lacquer painting functions as a site of material transformation, where tradition is neither passively preserved nor entirely abandoned, but actively reimagined through creative engagement. In doing so, the study underscores the significance of this art form as a living expression of Vietnamese identity, one that continues to evolve in dialogue with both its historical lineage and contemporary global currents.

2. Archaeological and historical evidence of Vietnam’s traditional lacquer craft

From an archaeological perspective, the lacquer craft of the ancient Vietnamese has been confirmed to date back approximately 2,500 years, as evidenced by numerous artifacts unearthed from burial sites across the Red River Delta. These findings not only verify the early presence of lacquer techniques but also indicate a remarkably sophisticated level of craftsmanship and aesthetic awareness as early as the Đông Sơn cultural period.

One of the earliest discoveries was made in 1969 at a tomb in Vĩnh Quang commune, Hoài Đức district, Hanoi, dating to the 4th–5th centuries BCE. Among the artifacts was a 2-centimeter-long wooden fragment covered with two distinct lacquer layers - one red, one black - marking a primitive yet deliberate application of lacquer decoration (Nguyen Duc Nung, 1976). Even earlier, in 1961, the excavation of the Việt Khê boat-shaped tomb (Thủy Nguyên, Hải Phòng), dating from the 4th century BCE, yielded several lacquered objects, including:

• An 88 cm-long oar coated with two layers of lacquer (black and yellow);
• A black lacquered wooden box adorned with intricate reddish-brown or light brown motifs;
• Wooden handles of bronze tools and weapons lacquered and decorated with circular patterns;
• A piece of animal hide treated with two lacquer layers, a thick inner black layer and a thin glossy outer red layer featuring concentric circle motifs.

Subsequent excavations of similar boat-shaped tombs in Xuân La (Phượng Dực, Phú Xuyên, Hanoi) from the 1st century BCE, and in Đông Sơn (Thủy Nguyên, Hải Phòng) in 1972, further substantiated the widespread use of lacquer. These digs revealed tools used in lacquer production, such as brushes, wooden dishes, lacquer-spinning boards, rulers, mixing bowls, and ink trays. Such findings demonstrate the advanced technical understanding and specialized toolkits associated with lacquer craftsmanship at the time. Lacquer was applied across a variety of objects, from small tools like knife handles to larger items such as coffins, suggesting that lacquerwork was deeply embedded in everyday life as well as ritual and funerary practices (Nguyen Xuan Nghi, 2008).

These findings have been compiled and analyzed in Vietnamese Traditional Lacquer Craft by researcher Lê Huyên, which affirms that by the 4th–5th centuries BCE, Vietnamese lacquerwork had achieved a high degree of artistic refinement and technical sophistication (Le Huyen, 1995). Thus, it can be asserted that traditional lacquer in Vietnam emerged at an early stage of the nation’s material culture, with the Red River Delta serving as the cradle for the development of techniques and aesthetic sensibilities that continue to shape the identity of Vietnamese lacquer art.

From a historical and cultural standpoint, although lacquer was not among the earliest traditional crafts to emerge in Vietnam, its two-millennia-long history attests to a deeply rooted and localized tradition. While bearing distinct characteristics reflective of the Vietnamese people, it also shares certain affinities with other lacquer traditions across Asia and the world, highlighting both its uniqueness and its place within a broader global context of lacquer art.

Historical records and folk legends of Vietnam’s lacquer craft

In addition to archaeological evidence, traditional Vietnamese lacquer is also deeply embedded in folk history and legend. One of the most prominent oral traditions attributes the founding of the lacquer craft to Trần Lư (also referred to in some sources as Trần Lô), an emissary from Bình Vọng village, located in what is now Thường Tín District, Hanoi. According to this legend, during the reign of King Lê Nhân Tông (1443–1460), Trần Lư was sent as a diplomatic envoy to China. On his second mission, in 1505, he is said to have studied the art of lacquer painting and, upon returning home, passed on his knowledge to the villagers. This transmission marked the beginning of a vibrant period of development for Vietnamese lacquer, which soon spread widely across the country.

From that point forward, numerous specialized craft guilds emerged, each developing distinctive local techniques. Notable examples include: sơn then (black lacquer) in Đình Bảng; lacquered offering trays from Chợ Bằng (Hà Đông); inlaid lacquerware from Chuôn village; gold leafing in Kiêu Kỵ (Gia Lâm); and the production of red pigment powder in Hàng Gai Street, Hanoi. Each craft community contributed to the rich mosaic of Vietnam’s lacquer heritage, infusing it with regional flavor and technical innovation. A poem allegedly composed by Trần Lư during his mission to China reflects his deep gratitude for the opportunity to learn this art: “How fortunate is this fool to serve as envoy. Learning a noble craft brings even greater joy”. Today, in Bằng village, where a temple dedicated to Trần Lư still stands, local communities continue to honor him as the ancestral founder of the lacquer craft. A popular couplet passed down through generations commemorates his legacy: “Twice the yellow blossoms hailed a Doctor of Letters. For a hundred years, crimson lacquer stirs the soul of the people” (Nguyen Duc Nung, 1976; Nguyen Xuan Nghi, 2008).

Vietnamese traditional lacquer has traversed more than two millennia, undergoing numerous phases of prosperity and decline. The golden age of its development is generally recognized as spanning the 17th to 19th centuries. During the long period of Chinese domination (1st–10th centuries CE), written records about the craft are sparse, posing considerable challenges for historical research into this early period.

However, after Vietnam regained independence in the 10th century, lacquer gradually became an integral part of the sociopolitical and spiritual life of the feudal state. Under the Lý and Trần dynasties (11th–14th centuries), when Buddhism reached its zenith in Vietnam, lacquer techniques were extensively employed in the decoration of temples, pagodas, royal palaces, and sacred ritual objects. The use of lacquer during this era not only reflected its practical and decorative functions but also signaled its symbolic and spiritual significance within Vietnamese religious culture.

From late 19th to early 20th century: the transformation toward modern lacquer art

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Vietnam’s traditional lacquer craft continued to flourish, experiencing significant advancements in technical processes, decorative forms, and societal applications, especially in the Red River Delta region. Lacquerware was no longer confined to the realm of royalty, temples, and religious rituals; it had become widespread across rural craft villages and local marketplaces, firmly establishing its place in both the cultural and economic life of Vietnamese society.

A pivotal moment in the history of Vietnamese art occurred in 1925 with the founding of the École des Beaux-Arts de l’Indochine (Indochina College of Fine Arts) in Hanoi. It was here that artists and artisans embarked on a groundbreaking journey: transforming traditional sơn ta (Vietnamese raw lacquer) into sơn mài, a new, modern artistic medium. This process involved not only technical innovation but also a redefinition of lacquer’s aesthetic potential, moving beyond its conventional role in craft and decorative arts to become a recognized form of fine art.

The successful fusion of indigenous techniques with academic art training laid the foundation for lacquer painting as a distinctly modern Vietnamese art form. Artists such as Nguyễn Gia Trí, Nguyễn Khang, and Trần Văn Cẩn elevated lacquer painting to unprecedented artistic heights, both domestically and internationally. The birth of modern lacquer art marked a turning point, one that redefined Vietnam’s artistic identity in the 20th century and continues to inspire innovation and experimentation in contemporary art today.

3. Lacquer art and Engraved lacquer

3.1. Lacquer and engraved lacquer art around the world

Asia is widely recognized as the cradle of lacquer art, with China being the earliest known civilization to discover and extract lacquer sap (urushiol) from the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) and to develop sophisticated techniques for processing and using it. Recent archaeological findings suggest that the Chinese began utilizing lacquer as early as 7,000 to 8,000 years ago. From China, lacquer techniques gradually spread to neighboring countries, notably Japan and Korea, where lacquer traditions began developing approximately 5,000 to 7,000 years ago. In Southeast Asia, including Thailand and Myanmar, lacquer art appeared somewhat later. Archaeological evidence across the region supports the conclusion that lacquer craftsmanship originated in China before disseminating throughout Northeast and Southeast Asia (Webb, 2000).

Despite each nation cultivating its own distinct cultural expressions, the emergence and evolution of lacquer can be seen as part of a broader “lacquer culture” of the region. This regional tradition shares certain core techniques and aesthetic sensibilities while simultaneously reflecting the local identity, resources, and spiritual beliefs of each culture.

Within this regional context, Vietnam developed its own unique lacquer tradition, distinguished by specific materials, techniques, and artistic approaches. The term sơn ta (Vietnamese lacquer) is not merely a classification of resin type, but a cultural identifier that differentiates it from sơn Nhật (Japanese lacquer), sơn Nam Vang (Cambodian lacquer), and various imported lacquers such as cinnabar or oil-based lacquers from Europe. Vietnamese lacquer is deeply embedded in indigenous knowledge systems and reflects a distinctly Vietnamese aesthetic sensibility.

Lacquer art in China

Lacquer paintings and objects dating back to the Western Han Dynasty (206 BCE) have been discovered in Korea and southern Mongolia, evidencing the early and widespread use of lacquer in Chinese culture. During the Song Dynasty, lacquer objects adorned with gold and silver leaf (qiangjin and tianqi) saw a period of remarkable development (Schilling et al., 2014). Initially, lacquer was applied primarily to household items, but it eventually became a staple in the interior decoration of aristocratic and imperial spaces.

Figure 1. Lacquer box and cover in Chinese Song dynasty 960–1279 (Source: Museum of Fine Arts Boston)

From the 11th century onward, China began producing lacquerware for trade and export, especially to Japan, where Chinese techniques significantly influenced the development of Japanese urushi art. Over time, Chinese lacquer evolved into a mature and distinguished artistic tradition, featuring a variety of forms such as carved lacquer (tihong), painted lacquer, and engraved lacquer paintings. These forms would later be recognized and celebrated globally as an important cultural and artistic legacy of East Asia (Heginbotham et al., 2016).

Lacquer art in Japan

Japan's climate and soil are ideal for growing lacquer trees (urushi – a member of the Rhus verniciflua family). Japanese lacquer is a resin derived from these trees. When fresh, it is toxic and can cause skin irritation. Since prehistoric times, the Japanese have used lacquer to protect their utensils and objects. Under the aesthetic influence of the imperial court, Japanese lacquer art evolved to embody elegance and sophistication. One of the most distinctive techniques is maki-e, which involves sprinkling finely ground gold or silver onto the lacquer surface. This technique, which emerged during the 8th and 9th centuries, imparts a dazzling and intricate beauty to the finished work. Initially, lacquerware was exclusive to the nobility and wealthy merchants. It was not until the Meiji era (19th century) that lacquerware became more widely accessible to the general public (Webb, 2000).

Figure 2. Maki-e sake bottle with Tokugawa clan's mon (emblem), Edo period, 18th century (Source: The Metropolitian Museum)

As for carved lacquer, according to Noritake Tsuda in The Handbook of Japanese Art (1990), during the Kamakura period, the Kamakura-bori technique was developed under the influence of Song Dynasty lacquerware. This technique combines wood carving and lacquer: the design is carved in relief, and then layers of black and red lacquer are applied.

Lacquer art in the West

In the mid-16th century, through maritime trade with China, lacquer resin began to make its way into Europe. By the 17th century, lacquerware from Asia, especially from China and India, became popular in countries such as England, France, the Netherlands, and Spain. Many products like jewelry boxes, cabinets, and lacquer chests were either imported or imitated in Europe. The term Japanning emerged to describe the European technique of lacquerwork, which was inspired by Eastern lacquerware but involved completely different materials and techniques, such as using varnish and heat drying (Safford et al., 2015; Webb, 2000).

To develop further, the distinction between traditional Japanese lacquerwork and its Western counterparts lies not only in the materials used but also in the cultural context and symbolic meanings. Japanese lacquer art has long been associated with spiritual and cultural practices, with its emphasis on natural beauty and harmony. In contrast, Western Japanning was more of an artistic and commercial endeavor, reflecting European interests in exoticism and luxury during the colonial period. Additionally, while Japanese lacquerware remained a refined craft for centuries, the European adaptation led to mass production techniques that altered the essence of the craft. These developments highlight the global exchange of artistic traditions and the evolution of lacquer art from a sacred and intricate craft in Japan to a commercial and decorative art form in the West.

3.2. The formation and development of lacquer carving in Vietnam

Lacquer carving first appeared in China and flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties (14th - 19th centuries). It later spread to Western regions through trade via coastal ports such as Coromandel (India). Although many people mistakenly associate the "Coromandel" style of painting with the region, in fact, these are lacquer carving products from China, named after the transit location.

In Vietnam, the technique of lacquer carving initially emerged in decorative household items and folding screens, developing alongside the traditional lacquer art. According to artist Phạm Đức Cường in Lacquer Techniques (1960), lacquer carving paintings were a form of art recognized in the West for centuries, often linked with handcrafted items from the Coromandel region. In the development of modern fine arts, especially from the early 20th century, lacquer carving in Vietnam was elevated to an independent genre of painting. The use of traditional lacquer (sơn ta) not only continued in decoration but also evolved into a material for creative expression in contemporary art (Tieu, 2007).

Artist Vũ Hà Nam explains that to create a lacquer carving piece, the surface needs to be covered with 15–20 layers of lacquer to reach the required thickness for deep carving (at least 5mm). This technique demands high precision and the ability to compose and create sharp forms. Unlike Japan, where lacquer carving is typically small-scale, Vietnamese lacquer carving paintings are large in size and require meticulous attention to detail.

The Artisan Trần Thành Đạt also shared that lacquer carving is entirely different from lacquer painting. While lacquer painting involves applying lacquer onto a canvas with brushes and then polishing, lacquer carving is more graphic, utilizing lines and carved patterns to express emotions. The image is carved into the surface and then painted to highlight the main subject.

Figure 3. Vietnamese lacquer carving painting, artist Thái Hà (1972)

Since 1945, lacquer carving has developed significantly, especially in the Hạ Thái craft village, the birthplace of both lacquer painting and lacquer carving. However, due to the technical demands of the process, lacquer carving was primarily executed by artists from the Indochina Fine Arts College and the Gia Định School of Fine Arts. Notable artists such as Đặng Tin Tưởng, Nguyễn Nghĩa Duyện, Thái Hà, Trần Hữu Chất, Phùng Phẩm, and Nguyễn Trọng Hợp have made significant contributions to this art form.

Figure 4. Vietnamese lacquer carving painting, artist Trần Hữu Chất (1992)

The transition from traditional lacquer art to lacquer painting and lacquer carving is the result of continuous cultural adaptation and creative innovation. Vietnamese lacquer carving, built upon traditional techniques, is an art form that deeply reflects national identity. It is essential to preserve and promote this unique form within the context of contemporary art.

4. Conclusion

Starting from the foundational techniques and materials of traditional lacquer craftsmanship, Vietnamese lacquer art has undergone a remarkable transformation to become a distinct and unique mode of expression within modern fine arts. This transformation is not merely about preserving tradition but represents a continuous journey of cultural adaptation and creative reinvention. Artists have taken traditional methods and reimagined them through their own innovative perspectives, breathing new life into age-old techniques. In this context, the technique of carving on lacquer stands as a prominent point of convergence between the rich values of tradition and the contemporary demands for artistic expression. It acts as a bridge, connecting the deep-rooted aesthetic heritage of Vietnam with the ever-changing needs of modern art. Lacquer carving not only extends the range of visual representation but also elevates the artistic depth of the material itself, bringing out nuances of texture, light, and form in ways that were previously unexplored.

Through an in-depth analysis of representative works created by different generations of artists, this paper highlights how lacquer carving art does more than simply continue the legacy of lacquer craftsmanship; it firmly establishes its place in the ever-evolving narrative of Vietnamese fine arts. The works of lacquer carving exemplify the vitality and adaptability of this art form, showing that it is not merely a static practice rooted in the past, but an evolving discipline that continuously interacts with the present and future. This dynamic nature reflects a broader mechanism of material transformation in art, where traditions are not bound by rigid, fixed definitions, but rather are living, breathing entities that evolve with time.

Moreover, the flexibility with which lacquer carving artists approach their medium, experimenting with texture, layering, and carving techniques, highlights the ability of lacquer as a material to transcend its traditional limitations. It is through this continuous exploration that lacquer carving has emerged as a quintessential form of artistic expression, demonstrating how an ancient craft can still be relevant, experimental, and innovative in contemporary art. The art of lacquer carving represents a powerful testament to the process of cultural exchange and material transformation, where tradition and innovation coalesce to form a unique, ever-evolving artistic language that speaks to the ongoing dialogue between the past and the present.

In conclusion, the development of lacquer carving in Vietnam is not only a reflection of the craft's deep historical roots but also an illustration of how Vietnamese artists have redefined and expanded the possibilities of lacquer as a medium. This art form continues to thrive and evolve, reflecting the adaptability of Vietnamese culture and its ability to blend tradition with modernity. The future of lacquer carving, enriched by its historical significance and creative potential, is a testament to the ongoing vitality and relevance of this distinctive art form in the contemporary global art scene.

References:

1. Heginbotham, A., Chang, J., Khanjian, H., & Schilling, M. R. (2016). Some observations on the composition of Chinese lacquer. Studies in Conservation, 61(sup3), 28-37.
2. Le Huyen (1995), Traditional Vietnamese Painting Craft, Fine Arts Publishing House, Hanoi.
3. Nguyen Duc Nung (1976), Fine Arts of the Tran Dynasty, Culture Publishing House.
4. Nguyen Xuan Nghi (2008), Traditional Painting Craft of Ha Tay Province, PhD thesis in Cultural Studies, archived at the library of the Institute of Cultural Studies.
5. Safford, L. B. (2015). Art at the Crossroads: Lacquer Painting in French Vietnam. The Journal of Transcultural Studies, 6(1), 126-170.
6. Schilling, M. R., Khanjian, H., Chang, J., Heginbotham, A., & Schellmann, N. (2014). Chinese lacquer: Much more than Chinese lacquer. Studies in Conservation, 59(sup1), S131-S133.
7. Tieu, B. (2007). Traditional Vietnamese lacquering processes and their applications to contemporary jewellery and small scale body related objects (Doctoral dissertation, UNSW Sydney).
8. Webb, M. (2000). Lacquer: technology and conservation. Butterworth-Heinemann.