THE ETHNOPOLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE TURKIC PEOPLES OF SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF KHAZAR DOMINATION

ABSTRACT

Being one of the most powerful states of Eurasia, the Khazar khaganate developed complex relations with the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarian Kingdom and the Russian tribes. By adopting the dynamics of a nomadic culture, the khazars increased their economic power through the strategic trade routes they controlled, and this power played a decisive role in alliances and conflicts with other States in the region. The article reveals how the Khazar khaganate shaped the history of Southeastern Europe not only as a military and political power, but also as a cultural center. Migrations of Turkic tribes in this geography and ethnic and political changes influenced by the Caspian Sea have left a deep mark on the historical development of the region. This study highlights the legacy of the Khazar khaganate and its lasting impact on Southeastern Europe in the following centuries.

The publication of this article invites the reader to further discussion with the author on a number of issues originally presented in it. The article is published as an example of Ganja State University historical studies school.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Будучи одним из самых могущественных государств Евразии, Хазарский каганат развивал сложные отношения с Византийской империей, Болгарским царством и русскими племенами. Переняв динамику кочевой культуры, хазары нарастили свою экономическую мощь благодаря стратегическим торговым путям, находившимся под их контролем, и эта мощь играла решающую роль в союзах и конфликтах с другими государствами данного региона. В статье описывается влияние Хазарского каганата на историю Юго-Восточной Европы не только как военной и политической державы, но и как культурного центра. Миграции тюркских племен, а также этнические и политические изменения, произошедшие под влиянием Каспийского моря, оставили глубокий след в историческом развитии региона. В этом исследовании освещается наследие Хазарского каганата и его длительное влияние на Юго-Восточную Европу в последующие столетия. Автор данной статьи приглашает читателя к дальнейшему обсуждению ряда вопросов, представленных в ней.

Статья опубликована в качестве примера школы исторических исследований Гянджинского государственного университета.

Keywords: Byzantine Empire, nomadic culture, Khazar khaganate, trade routes, Turkic tribes.

Ключевые слова: Византийская империя, кочевая культура, Хазарский каганат, торговые пути, тюркские племена.

Introduction: The khazars appeared in the historical arena as a continuation of the Sabarian Turks. The name Caspian, which continues to exist today under the name of the Caspian Sea, is mentioned in historical sources in connection with the Sasanian-Sabarian wars before the Sabars lost their political existence in 558. The tenth-century Islamic historian Mesudi says that the Turks call the community, which the Iranians call the Khazar (Sabir)[ 1, pp. 45-48]. Khazars are Khazar in Arabic sources, Kuzari in Hebrew, Chazari/Gazari in Latin, Khazari in Greek, Kozar/Kazarin in Russian, Kozar/Kazar in Hungarian, Khazir-k in Armenian, Khazar-i in Georgian, in Chinese it is referred to as T'u-Chue Ho-sa (K'o-sa) [5, pp. 202-205].

The Caspian country traditionally occupied the territory between the Caspian and Black Seas. The southern boundary was marked by the Caucasus Mountains, though Azerbaijan and part of modern-day Iran often fell under the influence of the khazar khaganate. The Khazar influence extended across lands reaching from the Volga Bulgars' territory in the north to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, and even to the vicinity of Kyiv [10, pp. 142-145]. Initially, the center of gravity of the Caspian state was located around the Terek River, but later the khazars expanded their influence over the river basins of the Volga, Yaik (Ural), Don, and Kuban, taking control of key trade routes that connected Europe and Asia.

In the VIII and IX centuries, Khazar khanate, which expanded over the centuries, was also subordinated to the Volga Bulgars, various Finnish tribes in the Kama and Volga regions, Burtas and Slavic tribes in the Middle Dnieper region (Ozu). To the greatest extent, the borders of the Caspian country stretched from the Yayık and Tsim rivers to the Dnieper River in the west. When the Kerch Castle in Crimea fell into the hands of the Turks in 576, the borders of this state reached the Black Sea. The khazars are mentioned under the name Turk in a Byzantine source dated 586, and in the same way they were recorded as T'u-Chue Ho-sa (K'o-sa), that is, the Turkish khazars, in the Chinese Chronicles of Xin Tang Shu. This situation clearly shows that the khazars were associated with the Gokturks [ 1, p. 50-53]. When in 582 the Gokturk State was divided into two, western and eastern, the khazars formed the extreme point of the western khanate and, at the request of this state, helped Byzantium against the Sassanid empire. There were also translators of the Khazar Turks in the palace of the Sasanian emperor Enushirvan (531-579). According to Islamic and Armenian sources, the khazars of the 7th century, they remained loyal to the Western Turks until the middle of the century [2, pp. 132-135]. Again, during this period they crossed the Derbent pass in the Caucasus, raided Georgia and Azerbaijan and besieged Tiflis. After the Sassanids and Avars besieged Istanbul in 626, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius provided 40,000 people to the khazars. Although Heraclius offered his daughter Evdokia to the Khazar Khan, this marriage did not take place due to the death of the khan, while preparations for the wedding continued [3, pp. 92-95]. Later, Chorpan Tarkhan, also from the khazars, succeeded against the Sassanids and captured all Northern Azerbaijan up to the Araks River. In addition to the capital Belenchere, the city of Kabale was founded in the South Caucasus (now the village of Chukhur-Kabala in Nukha province). In 629, Tiflis was captured, and some Armenian groups were subdued. The 10th-century Islamic historian Al-Masudi claims that this tribe, which the Iranians call "khazars", is known to the Turks as "Sabar" (Sabir). Although the exact date of the khazars' arrival in this region is unknown, Georgian sources claim that they settled in this region in the period before our era [6, pp. 165-168]. However, according to sources, the appearance of the khazars on the stage of history dates to the end of the II century. They attacked the Armenians together with Barsils in 198. From the beginning of the III century to the middle of the IV century, they fought in the Armenian region in alliance with the Sasanian state against Byzantium [4, pp. 100-103]. Starting from the second half of the IV century, when the Sassanids seized the lands inhabited by Armenians and began to pursue an aggressive policy against their neighbors, the khazars concluded an agreement with Byzantium and began fighting against the Sassanids. They supported Byzantium by participating in the war of the Byzantine Emperor Julian against the Sassanids in 363 [10, pp. 147-150]. After this incident, the Sassanids concluded an agreement with the tribes of the Caucasus and launched an attack on the khazars [2, pp. 139-142]. The khazars had to submit to the huns for a while when Attila became the Hunnic emperor in 434. However, with the collapse of the Hun empire after the death of Attila, the khazars again acted independently and began to attack the Sasanian lands. These attacks forced the Sassanid Emperor to turn to Byzantium for help. The wars between the khazars and the sassanids became continuous from 558, and the sassanid ruler built several castles in Derbent and in the passes in the Caucasus. The Avars, who arose in the 5th century, dominated the khazars for some time. The Sasanian ruler Anushirvan ordered the construction of the Derbent fortress (Bab el-Ebwab) against the Khazars. When Anushirvan realized that he could not defeat the khazars, he decided to be friends with them and adopted a security policy against the khazar danger. The khazars, who entered into an agreement with the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius in 626-627, advanced under the leadership of the commander Chorpan Tarkhan to the Arax River, capturing Azerbaijan as well as a portion of the Armenian population. Tbilisi, which could not be captured in 628 due to the onset of winter, was captured by the khazars by Yabgus in 629 because of a successful operation conducted by the khazar commander Chorpan Tarkhan. As a result of these events, the sassanids lost the status of a great state, and the Khazar khanate became the most important ally of Byzantium. However, during this period the khazars were not yet an independent state[11].

After the division of the Gokturk State into two parts: the Western and Eastern Gokturk States in 582 and the subsequent collapse of the Western Gokturk State, the khazars entered the historical arena as an independent khanate. The khazars, who quickly expanded their political and military influence, became a completely independent state around 630. When the state of the Western Turks collapsed, the khazars declared their independence (630). During this period, in the north of the Black Sea, in addition to Khazaria (635), another Great Bulgarian (Great Bulgaria) Turkish state arose. However, this state, which dominated the vast plains from Southern Russia to the Danube River, was destroyed by the khazars after 665[14].

Thus, the borders of the Caspian country have doubled. Although the seizure of the shores of the Sea of Azov led to increased contacts with Byzantium, it also allowed control of a vast territory up to the Danube River. Remnants of Sabar could still be found in the rapidly growing Caspian state. The Sabarian leader Alp Ilitvar (Ilteber) converted to Christianity by marrying the daughter of a Georgian prince in 682, and allegedly tried to spread this religion among the khazars. On the other hand, clergy sent by Byzantium began conducting religious propaganda within the country, but their efforts yielded no significant results. In 695, Emperor Justinian II was deposed and exiled to the fortress of Cherson in Crimea. Justinian took refuge with the khazar khan and married his sister. This khazar princess, who was baptized and given the name Theodora, ruled alongside Justinian when he successfully reclaimed the Byzantine throne in 705. However, the khazars later supported the people of Cherson, who rebelled against Justinian, and assisted Vardan-Philippicus in ascending to the throne [12].

The results of the study: The Khazar khaganate from the 7th to the 11th centuries was located around the Caspian Sea, from Lake Van to the shores of the Black Sea, to Kiev, it arose as a Turkish state that ruled vast lands from the Aral Sea to Hungary.

The center of the khaganate was the city of Itil (Atil), located at the mouth of the Volga River, on the northeastern coast of the Caspian Sea. This strategic location allowed the khazars to control trade routes from east to west and from north to south, thereby gaining greater economic power.

Figure 1. The supposed territory of the Khazar Khaganate

 Although the Khazar khaganate had a multinational and multicultural structure, it was based on the Turkic peoples. It should be borne in mind that the khazars carry the features of a nomadic culture, and this influenced the military tactics and administrative structure of the khaganate. In addition to the military successes of the khazars, strategic alliances and diplomatic relations also played an important role in the rise of the khanate. The marriage alliances concluded with the Byzantine Empire and the agreements concluded with other Turkic tribes strengthened the influence of the khazars in the region and ensured the support of Byzantium. The territory of the expansion of the khaganate included the westernmost points of the Western Turkic Khaganate; these territories included the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Dnieper, between the Don and the Volga, as well as the Caspian Sea. After the collapse of the Western Turkic state in 630, the khazars declared their independence and consolidated their power around the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea[13]. In particular, the alliance they established with the Byzantine Empire allowed them to succeed in the fight against the Sassanids and strengthen their influence in the region. One of the important steps in the rise of the Khazar khaganate was the destruction of the Great Bulgarian state in the north of the Black Sea region after 665. This victory allowed the khazars to expand their territory and establish dominance in the region up to the shores of the Sea of Azov. In addition, the khazars' control over important trade routes such as the Silk Road allowed them to gain great economic wealth and increase their military power. The period between the 7th and 10th centuries was a period when the political and ethnic structure of Southeastern Europe underwent major changes. During this period, the power of the Byzantine Empire in the region weakened from time to time, and this gave other powers, such as the khazars, an opportunity to manifest themselves and become stronger. The Khazar khaganate became a power that dominated the steppes of the northern Black Sea region and extended to the northern borders of Byzantium. This situation threatened the security of Byzantium and affected its relations with other powers in the region. In particular, the Bulgarian Kingdom tried to create a balance against Byzantium by establishing close relations with the khazars. These alliances strengthened the influence of the Khazar kaganate in Southeastern Europe. During this period, many different ethnic groups lived together in Southeastern Europe, such as Slavs, Pechenegs, Uzs and other Turkic tribes. With the expansion of the Khazar khaganate, Turkic tribes settled in the region and assumed an important role in the khazar army and administration. The khazars included other Turkic and non-Turkic tribes and thereby increased the power of the khaganate. As a result, the Khazar khaganate played an important role in shaping the ethnopolitical structure of Southeastern Europe, possessing both its military might and diplomatic skills. Since their appearance on the historical scene, the khazars have influenced the political balance in the region and contributed to the historical development of Southeastern Europe. The attention of historians was attracted by the state organization, which represented the State of the Gokturks [2, pp. 145-148]. According to the work "Hudud ul-alam", the khan, who was the head of state, came from the Ashina dynasty and, in accordance with Turkic traditions, was considered divine in origin. Therefore, to become a khan (khagan), it was necessary to belong to a certain dynasty. The khaganate was passed down from father to son, and it was believed that the khagans were descendants of a she-wolf named Asena [1, pp. 58-60]. Both the Western Turks and the khazars had the custom of "slaughtering the khagan." According to the Arab historian Istakhri, after the khagan took office, a limit was set on his lifetime, and as soon as this period expires, the khagan will be killed. [5, pp. 219-221].Ibn Fadlan believes that if the khagan had been on the throne for at least 40 years, government officials and the people would have thought that his ability to think and judge would have deteriorated due to old age, and as a result, the khagan would have been killed.[6, p. 174-176] As in other Turkic states, in Khazaria it was believed that the khagan possessed sacred power and position. When drought, famine, failures in wars and other bad luck happened to the people, the responsibility for this was assigned to the khagan, and this became the cause of his death. The khagan’s assistant was named Kundur, and his assistant was named Chavyshgir [4, pp. 112-114]. Apart from these 3 people, no one could enter the khagan. If the army sent by the khagan against the enemy is defeated, those who fled and returned will be killed, and the commander and deputy khagan will be punished. Other tribes associated with the khazars were ruled by people named il-teber or Tudun, sent from the center. The khagan’s wife was called Khatun, as in other Turkic states. After his death, khagan was buried in a luxurious mausoleum. Over time, the position of the Khazar khagan weakened. According to O. Pritsak, in the records of the historian Al-Yaqubi in the 9th century, the khagan was both a top–level administrator and commander of the army until 799; however, it is written that by 833 he shared his powers with another ruler, bek.

In the tenth century, when the khagan was reduced to the position of a symbolic spiritual leader, it was bek who was engaged in state affairs. According to Ibn Fadlan, the bek was authorized to impose all kinds of prohibitions, punish, forgive and manage state affairs. Nevertheless, in the hierarchy of that period, he occupied the second place after khagan, which was just a title. One of Beck's most important duties was to command the army. The man of the third rank in the Khazar administration was called a Kender, and the deputy Kender of the fourth rank was Javishgar [10, p. 155-157]. Tarkan was in fifth place in the management hierarchy. His duties included commanding a regiment or auxiliary armies in the Khazar army. Tarkan was also the title of the local ruler of Atil in the 8th century. According to Al-Istahri, the Khazar army numbered 12,000 men. Except for a small part of the soldiers, they did not receive regular pay, they received it for a long time and irregularly. The khazars did not have hired soldiers, and the defense of the cities was carried out by volunteers [3, pp. 103-105]. However, with the development of trade in the middle of the 9th century, the number of people doing military service decreased, which led to an increase in the number of mercenaries. On the other hand, Muslim warriors of Iranian origin, nicknamed "Arsia", brought from Khorezm, served as special guards of the Khazar khagan. Besides them, Russian Slavs also served in the Khazar army. In addition, the khazars did not seem to be a naval power [2, pp. 152-154]. Local rulers serving in the Khazariudun were called and appointed by the Khazar khagan. The Tuduns collected taxes and were responsible for customs. Coast Guard officers, who were called "fishermen", were also present. However, in some cities there were also elected administrators who took on the same responsibilities as the tuduns and fishermen. One of these rulers named Babaguk (the father of the city) ruled Kherson in 705-840. Another Babaguk was the ruler of Tmutarakan in 703. The khazars had a significant influence on the governing style of the Kievan Principality, which emerged during the era of Kievan Rus [1, pp. 65-67]. In ancient Russian epic tales, which recount the unsuccessful expedition of the Rus' against their enemies Polovtsians, the title of "khagan" is met referring to a “knyaz”. Similarly, in the work Hudud al-'Alam, Igor is called the "Russian khagan" [6, pp. 181-183].

The khazars established a sophisticated legal system that ensured the representation of all religious denominations in court, thus fostering an atmosphere of religious tolerance. The supreme court was composed of seven chief judges representing four different religious confessions. This legal system was particularly progressive for its time, as it accommodated religious diversity within a framework that promoted fairness and equality before the law.

Khazarian society was largely centered around trade and commerce, and as a result, much of the legal proceedings in their capital, Atil, revolved around commercial disputes. The courts played a crucial role in regulating business interactions, ensuring that contracts were honored and that both local and foreign merchants were treated fairly under Khazarian law. This judicial system was instrumental in maintaining the prosperity and stability of the khazar khaganate, which was a major hub for trade between Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.

The influence of khazarian legal and administrative practices extended to neighboring states, including Kievan Rus. In fact, the khazars' emphasis on religious tolerance and the integration of diverse communities into a cohesive society may have inspired the early leaders of Kievan Rus to adopt similar approaches to governance. Episodical usage of the title of "khagan" referring to rulers of Kievan Rus, reflects the deep cultural and political connections between the two entities. This adoption of the khazar title signifies the broader impact of khazarian influence on the development of early Slavic states.

The relations of the Khazars with Byzantium and military conflicts:

The khazars, who strengthened their influence in the 7th and 8th centuries, displaced the Goths from Crimea, taking control of Doros (now Mangup) in 787. This effectively ended Gothic domination in southern Crimea [2, pp. 155-157]. In the 9th century, the Khazar khaganate expanded further, extending its borders westward and northward [1, pp. 68-71]. In Eastern Europe, the khazars collected tribute from local tribes, asserting their authority in the region. After the northern Black Sea coast, the Kuban River, and Crimea fell under Khazar control, Byzantine relations with the khazars intensified [5, pp. 230-233].

During the reign of Emperor Leo III and his son Constantine V, Khazar-Byzantine relations reached their peak, with khazar khagan Bihar marrying a daughter of Leo, solidifying political and trade relations between the two states. However, by 932, relations between Byzantium and the khazars had deteriorated sharply. The primary reason for this was the persecution of Jews in Byzantium, leading many to seek refuge in Khazaria. This conflict escalated when the khazar khagan began persecuting Christians in his domain, which alarmed Byzantium [5, pp. 240-243]. Emperor Roman I Lekapenos, upon learning of this, forged an alliance with Prince Igor of Kiev to launch a military campaign against the khazars (according to the article author’s version - at the time when there was no war with him).

This campaign (according to the article author’s version) involved an attempt to capture key territories, such as the fortress of Sarkel on the left bank of the Don River. Although the Byzantine-Kievan forces initially achieved some successes, capturing several territories, the khazars managed to regroup and mount a counteroffensive. One of the most significant battles occurred near the Don River, where the khazars, using their knowledge of the terrain, inflicted heavy losses on the Rus forces. This battle marked a turning point in the campaign, resulting in the Byzantine-Kievan forces being forced to retreat [4, pp. 125-128].

The campaign had largely stalled, with both sides suffering significant losses. Ultimately, the khazars regained control over most of the territories they had initially lost, including the areas around the Sea of Azov and the lower Don River. This failure highlighted the strength and resilience of the Khazar Khaganate, which managed to maintain its position for several more decades despite external pressure [, pp. 160-162].

Thus, the series of conflicts between Byzantium and Khazaria led to significant changes in the political and military landscape of the region, with lasting effects on the balance of power in Eastern Europe.

Conclusions: Between the 7th and 10th centuries, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most important political and cultural powers of Southeastern Europe. Byzantium, which controlled a significant part of the Balkans, also had significant influence on other states in the region. During this period, Byzantium had a difficult relationship with the Khazar Khaganate. Although alliances have been formed between the two states from time to time, competition and conflicts have also arisen from time to time. Byzantine relations with the khazars usually revolved around issues such as border security, trade, and religion. Byzantium viewed the khazars as a buffer state on its northern borders and tried to use them against attacks by other nomadic peoples. At the same time, Byzantine policy included protecting its economic interests by trading with the khazars and controlling trade routes passing through the khazar lands. Religion also played an important role in Byzantine-Khazar relations. Byzantium tried to spread Christianity among the khazars and involve them in its cultural and political sphere of influence. For this purpose, Byzantine missionaries were sent to the khazar lands, and some khazar princes and princesses were even married to the Byzantines. For example, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V married the daughter of the khazar khagan of Bihar. The relationship between the khazars and the Byzantines was a complex and multifaceted structure. Although alliances were formed between the two states from time to time, military conflicts also occurred from time to time. These relationships are based on factors such as border security, trade, and religion. Byzantium viewed the khazars as a buffer state on its northern borders and tried to use them against attacks by other nomadic peoples. For this reason, military alliances were concluded between the two states from time to time and they acted together against common enemies. In particular, the khazars and the Byzantines fought together against the Arab raids into the Caucasus. For example, when the Islamic armies besieged Istanbul in 717, the khazars crossed the Caucasus and entered Azerbaijan at the request of Byzantium for help. Relations between the khazars and the Byzantines were not always friendly. From time to time, military conflicts arose between the two states, especially in the border regions and Crimea. For example, in 710, Byzantium declared war on the khazars after they captured the city of Kherson in the Crimea. Khazar-Byzantine relations were disrupted when the Byzantine Crimean people rebelled and the khazars sided with the rebels. However, the expansion of the Arabs into the Irminia region brought the Khazar-Byzantine alliance back on the agenda. When the Islamic armies besieged Istanbul in 717, the khazars crossed the Caucasus and entered Azerbaijan in accordance with the desire of the Byzantines, but were repulsed by Islamic forces. The Byzantine emperor Constantine V, the son and successor of Leo III (717-741), later married a Khazar princess named Cicek, who took the name Irene. Their son, Leo IV (775-780), became known in history by the nickname "Leo the Khazar" [10, pp. 170-173]. During this same period, migrations from Central Asia began to exert pressure on the khazars.

In 833, at the request of the Khazar khan for the help of a master, under the guidance of engineer Petronas, sent from Byzantium, the Sarkel Castle (White Castle) was built on the left bank of the Don. In 932, because many Jews who had been oppressed in Byzantium found refuge with the khazars, the Byzantine-Khazar friendship ended and the khazars began to oppress Christians in the country. In addition, in 932, relations between the two states deteriorated due to the Byzantine oppression of Jews, and the khazars supported the uprising of the Byzantine Crimean people.

In general, the khazar khaganate profoundly influenced the ethnopolitical structure of Southeastern Europe with its domination from the 7th to the 10th centuries. The military might, strategic alliances, and cultural wealth of the khaganate have left deep-rooted traces in this vast geography. The complex relations that the khazars established with other states of the region allowed them to take their place in the historical arena not only as a political force, but also as a cultural center. The influence of the Khazar khaganate on the Turkic peoples was manifested in the migrations of these peoples to Southeastern Europe and in the formation of the ethnic structure of the region.

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