GENDER DISTINCTION IN MODERN MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE

 

УДК 811.51

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study is to determine the possibilities of distinguishing genders in the modern Mongolian language. The findings of the study indicate that gender distinctions are expressed through both grammatical and lexical means. The study further investigates the extent to which gender can be differentiated in common nouns and personal names, and offers additional observations building on the grammatical and conceptual frameworks proposed in previous research. In addition, the possibility of identifying gender through personal names is considered. The results suggest that gender can, to a certain extent, be distinguished based on male and female naming patterns. Overall, the findings demonstrate that, despite the absence of grammatical gender as a formal category, modern Mongolian systematically encodes gender distinctions through lexical resources and personal naming practices.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Цель исследования состоит в том, чтобы определить возможности различения рода в современном монгольском языке. Результаты исследования показывают, что различия родов выражаются как грамматическими, так и лексическими средствами. Исследование также охватывает вопрос о том, в какой степени род может быть дифференцирован в нарицательных и личных именах, и предлагает дополнительные наблюдения, основанные на грамматических и концептуальных схемах, предложенных в предыдущих исследованиях. Кроме того, рассматривается возможность определения рода по личным именам. Результаты позволяют делать вывод о том, что род в определенной степени может быть различен на основе мужских и женских имён.

 

Keywords: Grammatical gender, lexical gender, male name, female name, The Secret History of the Mongols, king, queen, son, girl.

Ключевые слова: Грамматический род, лексический род, мужское имя, женское имя, Сокровенное сказание монголов, король, сын, королева, дочь.

 

INTRODUCTION

According to researcher M. Hellinger [13. p. 6-11], the gender system in many languages of the world includes concepts such as grammatical gender, lexical gender, referential gender, false generics: generic masculines and male generics, and social gender.

Grammatical gender is a noun class system, composed of two or three classes, whose nouns that have human male and female referents tend to be in separate classes. Other nouns that are classified in the same way in the language may not be classed by any correlation with natural sex distinctions. [29]

In addition, in debates on language and gender, the term “gender” usually relates to the property of extra-linguistic (i.e., “natural” or “biological”) femaleness or maleness. Thus, in English, personal nouns such as mother, sister, son and boy are lexically specified as carrying the semantic property [female] or [male] respectively, which may in turn relate to the extra-linguistic category of referential gender (or “sex of referent”). In any language, lexical gender is an important parameter in the structure of kinship terminologies, address terms, and a number of basic, i.e., frequently used personal nouns. Lexical gender may or may not be marked morphologically. [13, p. 6]

In contrast, gender distinction in modern Mongolian has been approached differently.  B. Ya. Vladimirtsov [26], N. Poppe [19], George L. Campbell [12], Greville G. Corbett [11], and other scholars have argued that grammatical gender is not present in modern Mongolian. The issue of gender in modern Mongolian has been addressed from both grammatical and lexical perspectives by B. Ya. Vladimirtsov [26.p.31], B. Rinchen [21, p. 88–108], N. Poppe  [20, p. 239–241], Ts. Önörbayan [18, p. 132], Juha Janhunen [14, p. 119], Yu. Mönkh-Amgalan & Kang Shin [17, p. 70], and has also been considered from a cognitive perspective by J. Bayansan [2, p. 183–193] and D. Badamdorj [1, p. 17, 24–26, 131–132].

B. Ya. Vladimirtsov [26, p.31] states that “the Mongolian language does not express gender grammatically. This is evident not only across all dialects of modern Mongolian, but also throughout the entire historical development of the Mongolian written language. European linguists have likewise addressed this issue, noting that ‘nouns in the Mongolian–Kalmyk language do not indicate gender’ (Bobrovnikov, Linguistics, p. 67), and that ‘the Mongols distinguish animate beings according to gender, and thus possess specific lexical items to differentiate male and female’ (Kovalevsky, Linguistics, p. 29). Indeed, when a Mongolian speaker uses the form tere, it may refer equally to a man, a woman, a child, a horse, a tree, or an iron vessel. This shows that Mongolian does not distinguish gender at the level of grammatical structure, nor does it exhibit corresponding morphological markers; rather, this absence constitutes a general characteristic of the language.”

B. Rinchen [21, p. 88] notes that within the class of common nouns, there are lexical items that distinguish the gender of animals, such as azarga (stallion), güü (mare), gura (male deer in traditional Mongolian script, not gur), and zörö, whose form can be further confirmed through its inflection in the dative-locative case (zöröd). In the domain of human reference, gender distinctions are likewise evident in numerous kinship terms, including ‘father’, ‘mother’, ‘brother’, and ‘sister’.

Within common nouns, in addition to such gender-differentiated pairs as azarga–güü, buur–inge, and gura–züre, there also exist specific suffixes that indicate gender. Over time, some of these suffixes have ceased to consistently mark gender distinctions in both spoken and written forms; however, a number of them remain preserved, particularly in terminology related to animal husbandry. Forms such as gunjin, dönjin, ulaagchin, and tsagaagchin continue to retain their semantic association with the feminine gender [21, p. 89].

To some extent, the “Ural-Altaic” typological orientation of Mongolian may also have been strengthened by language contacts during the post-Proto-Mongolic period. This conclusion is suggested by the fact that Proto-Mongolic still had features, such as traces of a morphologically expressed grammatical gender, which cannot be regarded as “Ural-Altaic”, and which have been subsequently lost. [14, p. 57]

“While historical data suggests earlier forms of grammatical gender distinction, modern Mongolian shows a shift toward lexical expression.”

Furthermore, N. Poppe reported that in Middle Mongolian, numerals could reflect gender distinctions. N. Poppe  [19, p.156] notes that although grammatical gender is absent and therefore gender agreement is not formally expressed, the pre-classical language exhibits features that resemble gender agreement, albeit distinct from the Latin congruentia in genere. In reference to female beings, specific lexical forms were employed. In particular, the numeral ǰirin (‘two’) is attested in such contexts: qoyar er-e - ‘two  men’ ;  ǰirin qatud -‘two ladies’

In Middle Mongolian, the word jirin, meaning ‘two’, is found in historical sources. Words sharing the same root, such as džirin ‘girth’, džigūr ‘wing’, and džirěmsěn ‘pregnant’, are found in the Mongolian literary language. The element jir in these forms is considered to be etymologically related to the earlier form yar in qoyar (‘two’). This development is represented as jir ˃ yir ˃ yar [15, p. 167]

The word jirin may represent the root of the modern Mongolian word džirěmsěn (‘pregnant’). This interpretation is supported by the fact that the term is used exclusively in reference to women. The Mongolian Explanatory Dictionary [28] defines džirěmsěn as “the state of a woman carrying a child; the condition of pregnancy: to become pregnant (to be in a state of pregnancy …).”

In modern Mongolian, the numeral khoyor (‘two’) is used irrespective of the gender of the noun. Although plural forms such as khaan–khaad (‘king–kings’) and khatan–khatad (‘queen–queens’) can be formed, when numerals of two or higher precede the noun, constructions such as khoyor khaan (‘two kings’) and khoyor khatan (‘two queens’) are used instead. In such cases, no gender distinction is grammatically expressed.

However, despite the absence of grammatical gender in such constructions, the possibility of distinguishing gender through suffixation in modern Mongolian has been discussed in the works of N. Poppe [19], B. Rinchen [21], Ts. Önörbayan [18], Juha Janhunen [14], N. Mönkh [16], D. Borolzoi and others [4].

In this article, we examine how gender is distinguished in the modern Mongolian language through grammatical and lexical means.

Materials and methods. The present study adopts a library-based research approach and employs both qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection. The data were obtained from the National Statistics Office of Mongolia website (https://www.1212.mn/mn/statistic/fun-statistic/given-name).

RESULTS

GRAMMATICAL GENDER IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

The following table shows suffixes that function in the formation of feminine nouns and adjectives in modern Mongolian. It presents the observations of various scholars and sources, which highlight the morphological means by which gender distinctions are expressed. The table includes relevant suffixes, key researchers who have discussed them, their primary works, and illustrative examples that demonstrate their usage.

Table 1.

Suffixes Forming Female Gender Nouns and Adjectives in Modern Mongolian

Suffixes	Researchers	Books, resources	Examples
-j/-jin	N. Poppe	Grammar of Written Mongolian 1964, p.42	moƞℽolǯin (Mongolian woman) ℽunaǯin (three year female cattle)
	N. Poppe	Introduction to Mongolian Comparative Studies, 1987, p. 240	moƞℽolǯin ℽunaǯin
	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar, 1966/2015 p.99, p. 102	Bargujin, Mongoljin Yujin khün be? (Who is the woman?)
	Academy of Sciences	Comparative Grammar of Mongolian Languages, 1985	Gunj (three year female cattle), dönj (four year female cattle)
	Ts. Önörbayan,	Morphology of modern Mongolian, 1998	Colour of animals
	D. Borolzoi and others	Mongolian for everyone (Niiteer ezemshikh mongol khel), 2017	guna (three year male cattle) gunj (three year female cattle) dönö (four year male cattle) dönj (four year female cattle)
	N. Mönkh	Studying the French Translation of Proper Names in the Secret History of the Mongols, 2017	Alungoo Bargujingoo
	L. Bold	Modern Mongolian Suffixes, 1986	gunji, dönji
-gchin	N. Poppe	Introduction to Mongolian Comparative Studies, 1987, p. 240	qaraℽčin (black colour of female animal)
	Ts. Önörbayan	Morphology of modern Mongolian, 1998	Colour of animals
	Janhunen Juha A.	Mongolian, 2012, p.119	xeux ‘blue’ FEM xeux.e.gcen, oulaan ‘red’: FEM oulaagcen, shar ‘yellow’: FEM  shar-e.gcen,  tzagaan ‘white’: FEM tzagaa-gcen, xar ‘black’ : FEM xar-e.gcen.
	N. Mönkh	Studying the French Translation of proper names in the Secret History of the Mongols, 2017	Borogchingoo
	D. Borolzoi and others	Mongolian for everyone (Niiteer ezemshih mongol khel) 2017, p.71	ulaagchin (red color of a female animal) khökhögchin (blue color of a female animal) sharagchin (yellow color of a female animal)
-gtai -gtoi -egtei	N. Poppe	Grammar of Written Mongolian, 1964, p.42	emegtei (female), khatagtai (lady)
	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar, 1966/2015, p.90	noyogtoi
	D. Borolzoi and others,	Mongolian for everyone (Niiteer ezemshikh mongol khel), 2017, p. 73	noyogtoi
-lun/lün	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar, 1966/2015, p.103	Nomolun, Namulun, Öölun
	Ts. Shagdarsuren and others	Mongolian Language Studies, X vol. 2022, p. 205	Nomulun
	N. Mönkh	Studying the French Translation of proper names in the Secret History of the Mongols, 2017	Altalun, Nomulun, Temülün
-khai, -khei	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar 1966/2015, p.103	avkhai (madam)
-gai, gei, gii	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar, 1966/2015 p.103	avgai (married woman), gergii (wife)
--gui	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar, 1966/2015 p.103	Mii, migui, Arigun-Arigui
-khan, -khen, -khon	B. Rinchen	Written Mongolian Grammar, 1966/2015, p.103	noyokhon, khüükhen (countess, lady)
-aa/oo/ ee	D. Badamdorj	Lexical semantics of Mongolian language 2015, p. 251	Dulam (male name) Dulamaa (female name )
-maa	O. Sükhbaatar	Dictionary of Foreign Words in the Mongolian Language1997, p. 74-75	gelen gelenmaa
	D. Enkhjargal Ts. Oyunsuren	In this article	As a word-Maa As a word formation suffix -Batmaa

 

The following table presents observations on lexical means of expressing gender distinctions in modern Mongolian. It demonstrates how gender is used through vocabulary across different semantic domains, including kinship terms, occupational titles, animal names, and personal naming practices.

Table 2

LEXICAL GENDER IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

№		Types	Examples
1	Gender-based distinctions in kinship terms	Calling men and women different	father, mother, grandmother, grandfather
		Using the words eregtei (male) and emegtei (female) before nouns	eregtei düü (little brother) emegtei düü (little sister)
		To create new words by adding the words khadam and khoid to gender-specific words	khadam aav (father in- law) khadam eej (mother in- law) khoid aav (stepfather) khoid eej (stepmother)
2	Gender-based distinctions in occupation terms	To use words eregtei (male) and emegtei (female) before the name of a profession	eregtei bagsh (male teacher) emegtei bagsh (female teacher)
3	Gender-based distinctions in animal terms	Use the words er (male) and em (female) before the names of animals.	er khurga (male lamb) em khurga (female lamb)
		Different words for different genders	tailag (steer camel) inge (camel cow)
4	HUMAN NAMES
	Male names	Common Mongolian male names	Bat, Baatar, Bal, Bold, Dorj, Sükh, Tulga, Tömör, Khangai, etc.
		Male names of kings and other people mentioned in the Secret History of the Mongols	Chingis, Khubilai, Boorchi
		Names that include animal names for men	Baavgai (Bear) Chononkhüü (wolf+son)
		Male names containing “khuu/ khüü” (son or boy) and “bandi” (novice or discipline of a lama)	Shinekhüü (New son) Borbandi (Brown novice)
		Names of the sun, moon, stars, planets, and days of the week	Angarag (Mars Davaa (Monday in Tibetan)
	Female names	The words “goo/-gua” are used in female names	Narangoo Sarangoo
		In the names of queens and princesses in the Secret history of the Mongols	Alungoo, Börte-Üjin
		Female names containing the word khatan (queen), günj (princess), dagina (diva)	Khatansaikhan, Günjsaikhan
		Female name containing Tsetseg (flower) and the name of the flower	Enkhtsetseg, Sarnai
		Female names containing the word “chimeg” (pretties)	Enkhchimeg
		Female names containing the words okhin (girl), khuuhen/ khüükhen (miss/lady)	Tsagaankhüükhen (White+miss)
		Naming a female with the name of an animal	Togosoo (Peafowel+oo morpheme)
		Naming a female after the name of God	Tsagaandari-ekh (White Tara)

 

DISCUSSION

1. GRAMMATICAL GENDER IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

1.1. Gender distinction by the suffix -gchin

In particular, the suffix -gchin functions as a feminine suffix in modern Mongolian and is widely used in nouns referring to animals to indicate female gender. It appears in forms such as kharagchin (‘black [female animal]’), tsagaagchin (‘white [female animal]’), ulaagchin (‘red [female animal]’), ölögchin (‘female’), and sharagchin (‘yellow [female animal]’), where it marks the natural gender of the referent.

“A typologically interesting, but synchronically marginal, feature of adjectival morphology is the phenomenon of suffixal gender distinction in colour terms, when used to denote animals. Although  modern Mongolian generally has no grammatical gender (cf. Kalchofner 2007; Alimaa 2007), colour terms can take the feminine suffix -gc ~ -gcen, before which the final nasal of nasal stems is dropped. This suffix is regularly used with the five colour terms of the zodiac: xeux ‘blue’: FEM xeux.e.gcen, oulaan ‘red’: FEM oulaagcen, shar ‘yellow’: FEM shar-e.gcen, tzagaan ‘white’: FEM tzagaa-gcen, xar ‘black’: FEM xar-e.gcen. The feminine forms are used attributively to indicate the natural gender of the animal, as in xeux noxai ‘blue male dog’ (zodiac sign of the eleventh year of the sixty-year cycle) vs. xeux-e.gcen gaxai ‘blue female pig’ (zodiac sign of the twelfth year of the sixty-year cycle). The feminine suffix can also be attached to terms specifically denoting shades of animal colours, as in xongger ‘fallow (horse)’: FEM xongg-e.gcen ‘fallow female (horse)’. The same suffix is also attested in the idiosyncratic lexicalized item eul-e.gcen ‘female (animal)’, which has no synchronically surviving base word.” [14, p.119]

 Similarly, in the works of D. Borolzoi and other scholars [4, p. 71], the suffix -gchin is used as a female adjective ending. The suffix -gchin: Usually, it is added to the root or base of a noun that indicates color, such as “börtögchin” (spotted color of a female animal) , “tarlagchin” (varicolored), “khalzagchin” (bald  female animal), “tsagaagchin” (white female), “emegchin” (female), etc., to create a noun that indicates “the color of a female animal”.

red (~color)- ulaagchin (red color of a female animal)

blue (~color)-khökhögchin (blue color of a female animal)

yellow (~color)-sharagchin (yellow color of a female animal)

The -gchin suffix indicates the color of a female animal, but the word “eregchin” (male) appears to have been formed by the law of similarity.

1.2. Gender distinction of nouns with the suffix -lun/lün

Researchers have noted that the Mongolian language distinguishes the genders of proper names. Gender was distinguished by the meaning of the suffixes added to the names of people. The first monument that recorded the names of Mongolian people is the “Chingis Khan Stone Inscription”, and researchers believe that the source that recorded the largest number of names (over 450) is the “Secret History of the Mongols” [22, p. 205].

In this context, another suffix that indicates the feminine gender, proposed by B. Rinchen [21, 103], is -lun, lün. For example, Nomolun, Namulun, Öulun, etc.

Furthermore, researcher N. Mönkh [16, p. 113] states that “There are 4 names with the suffix -lun/-lűn in the Secret History of the Mongols. Researchers such as L. Ambi and N. Poppe (1975, p. 164) believe that this suffix occurs only in the names of women of noble origin. In the Buryat dialect, this suffix is added to the name of a man to indicate the meaning of wife: Altan khan (Atan King)-Altanlun khatan (the queen Altanlun)., etc.”

In addition, N. Poppe studied the use of suffixes to distinguish between male and female names and clan names at that time, and took 10 suffixes such as -čar, -čer, -dai, -dei,-ldai, -ldei, -dar, -der, -ldar, -lder, -lun, -lün, -qčin, kčin, -gin, -ut, -üt, -t and determined what noun each suffix formed. He found that the suffixes -dai and -dei formed male names, while the suffix -gin formed clan names, such as ...borǰigin, and borǰigidai (mergen) Borjigdai the wise is a male name derived from the name of the Borjigin clan. The fact that names with the suffixes -gchin, -gan², -lun/lün and -khen, such as Khuagchin, Yesügen, and Nomulun, are common in female names indicates that the influence of gender distinctions and the number of people played an important role in the creation of names at that time [22, p. 205].

One example is Nomulun. There are conflicting historical sources about the identity of Nomulun.  In the “Sudriin chuulgan” it is said that she was the wife of Menen Tudun and the mother of nine sons, while in the Secret History of the Mongols it is mentioned only once that Hachi Khulug’s son Khaidu was born to Nomulun [6, p. 87]. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], the name Nomulun is 240, Nomuulun-4, Namulun-849, and Namulun-12.

Another representative example is Ögelün. Ögelün is the mother of Chingis Khan and a woman credited with founding the Great Mongolian Empire. Ögelün is the queen of Yesükhei baatar and gave birth to four sons: Temujin, Khasar, Khachiun, and Temüge, and a daughter named Temülün. [6, p. 117] This name Ögelun has the following variants and frequencies. These include: Ögelün-1, Öülen-Ujin-24, Öülen-112, Öülün-1, Öülengoo-9, Öülentsetseg-1, Öülengua-2, Öülenjin-1, Ölüng-5, Ölünüjin-3, Öölüüjin-2.  

Finally, the name Temülün also illustrates this pattern. The youngest daughter of Yesükhei Baatar. When she was in her cradle, her father Yesukhei Baatar, died and the Tais seized her country, so she and her mother and brothers had a difficult life. [6, p. 128] According to statistics, the name Temülün is 131, Temüülün-16, Temülen-14675, Temüülin-34, Temülin-9, Temüülengoo-10, Temüülengua-1, Temülengoo-2. Variants of the suffix -lun can be -luun, -lüün, -len, -lin.

1.3. Other Gender Distinguishing Suffixes

According to the scholar B. Rinchen, the suffixes -khai, -khey (Mandukhai, akhai, avkhai, etc.), -gui, ghui (in the Erdeniin tobchi, the male name Ariguun is used, the female name Arigui is used, in the oral dialect, cats are called mii, migui), -gai, -gei, -gii (avgai, gergii), etc., distinguish gender.

The suffixes -khan, -khon, -khen, and -khün also indicate the feminine gender. If added to the word noyon and made noyokhon, it means a noble girl in Mongolian, so it becomes a word similar to avkhai. [21, p. 104]. The suffixes “-khan, khon, khen, khün,” “-khai, khei,” “-gtai,” and “lun/lün” are used by scholar N. Poppe, who described this in his work “Introduction to Mongolian Comparative Studies” [20. p 239-241]. He mentioned the use of the suffix “-khan” to form the diminutives of feminine nouns: noyon-noyokhon, khüü-khüükhen, etc., and the use of the suffix “-gchin” to form the feminine form of nouns: the noun “kharagchin” is formed.

1.4. Gender Distinction by the Suffix -aa

There is a form of creating a feminine name by adding -aa to a masculine name. Scholar D. Badamdorj [1, p.251]: “Male and female names can be distinguished by the use of accents.” For example: Dulam -Dulamaa, Badam -Badamaa, Byamba, Byambaa, etc. We consider this to be a way of distinguishing the gender of a person’s name by the suffix -aa.

The Tibetan word -maa  as a suffix in Mongolian

We consider that some words that have entered the Mongolian language from foreign languages distinguish genders. For example, some nouns and proper nouns that have entered the Mongolian language from Tibetan distinguish genders. We believe that words such as gelen -gelenmaa, genen-genenmaa, and getsel-getselmaa are gender-separated by -maa. In O. Sükhbaatar's “Dictionary of Foreign Words in the Mongolian Language” [24, pp. 74-75]

Gelen- monk of the Buddhist religion.

Gelenmaa- a nun of the Buddhist religion.

Genen- a lama of the Buddhist religion who has not received the ordination.

Genenmaa- a mother who approaches virtue, a vassal.

Getsel- the second vow taken before a teacher to observe the virtues, the name of the ordination

Getselmaa is explained as the name of the ordination of a woman to observe the virtues.

In Mongolian, there is no grammatical gender distinction between masculine and feminine nouns, but in terms of meaning, it can be masculine, feminine, or common nouns. The Tibetan -maa, which means mother, is not used alone in Mongolian, and if -maa is added to the end of a masculine noun, it becomes a feminine noun. It is believed that the word -maa, which came from Tibetan, is used in Mongolian as a suffix to form feminine nouns. This can be seen as a similar case to the way in which in Russian, foreign words such as -teka and -drom become word-forming suffixes [25, p. 28], forming words such as biblioteka, apteka, kartoteka, diskoteka, aerodrom, avtodrom, and rocketdrom.

Words such as maa (mother) [5, p. 637], dulam (saviour mother) [5, p. 583], and lkham (angel) [5, p. 633], which came to Mongolian from Tibetan, help to distinguish the gender of a person's name. “Maa” is used only in Mongolian female names, while dulam and lkham are used in both male and female names. The personal name Dashzegve means “doubled blessing” and in this form, if you add -maa to a male name, Dashzegve+maa becomes “majestic mother” and names a woman. Dulam [5, p. 583] is used in both male and female names, but Dulmaa only refers to a woman. Lkham also refers to a man and a woman, while Lkhamaa only refers to a woman. By adding -maa to male names such as Bat, Demberel, Ochir, and Och, female names such as Batmaa [5, p. 66], Demberelmaa [5, p. 590], Ochirmaa [5, p. 286], and Ochmaa [5, p. 287] are formed.

According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are 2 cases where the name Chingis is added to the name -maa, creating the name Chingismaa. The name Boldmaa is formed by adding +maa to the male name Bold. There are 348 people named Boldmaa in Mongolia.

2. LEXICAL MEANS OF EXPRESSING GENDER IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

However, modern Mongolian does not have grammatical gender, but there are ways to express gender. According to G. Corbet [10], it is a semantically gendered language, and according to M. Hellinger [13] modern Mongolian is a lexical gendered language. Modern Mongolian can be considered to be semantically and lexically gendered. The following methods distinguish masculine or feminine gender in Modern Mongolian.  

 

2.1. Gender distinction using the words “eregtei” (male) and “emegtei” (female)

2.1.1. Gender distinction of human occupations. When distinguishing between the words person, teacher, student, driver and herdsman the word emegtei or eregtei is written before the word. For example,

emegtei khün (woman), eregtei khün (man),

emegtei bagsh (female teacher), eregtei bagsh (male teacher)

emegtei oyutan (female student), eregtei oyutan (male student)

emegtei jolooch (female driver), eregtei jolooch (male driver)

emegtei malchin (female herdsman), eregtei malchin (male herdsman), etc.

2.1.2. Gender Distinction in the Five Types of Livestock

Using the Terms Male and Female

In this section we used animal husbandry glossaries by N. Dorjgotov [7]  and G. Erkhembayar [9].

For example, in the case of sheep, the gender of a sheep is distinguished by using the word er (male) or em (female) before words such as khoni (sheep), khurga (lamb), and khyazaalan khoni (four-year sheep). For example, er khoni (castrated ram), em khoni (ewe), er khurga (male lamb), em khurga (female lamb), er tölög (a year old male lamb), em tölög (a year old female lamb), er khyazaalan khoni (four year old castrated ram), em khyazaalan khoni (four year old ewe) and do on. A three-year-old female sheep is called a zusag. Words such as “ireg” (ram) and “khuts” (uncastrated ram) directly indicate the male gender.

For example, in the case of goat, words such as yamaa (goat) and ishig (kid) are preceded by the words “er” and “em”. For example, er yamaa (male goat, he-goat), em yamaa (female goat, nanny-goat ), er ishig (young male goat), em ishig (young female goat), etc. Words such as serkh (castrated goat over three years of age) and ukhna (uncastrated male goat) indicate the masculine gender.

For example, in the case of cattle, the gender of a cattle is distinguished by the words er “male” and em “female” before words such as “tugal” (calf), byaruu “calf in its second year”, and shüdlen (three-year-old). Guna (three-year-old cattle), dönö (cattle colt in the fourth year), shar (ox) and bukh (bull) refer to male cattles, while gunj (three-year-old cow), dönj (four-year-old cow),  ünee (cow) refer to female cattles.

For example, in the case of horse, before the words unaga, daaga, shüdlen, khyazaalan, soyoolon, use one of the words “er” (male) or “em” (female) to distinguish gender, such as er unaga (male foal), em unaga (female foal), er daaga (male colt), em daaga (female colt). Stallions and horses directly indicate the male gender, while güü (mare) and baidas (young mare) refer to female horses.

For example, in the case of camel, before the words botgo (camel calf) and torom (yearling camel), use the words er or em, for example, er botgo, em botgo, er torom, em torom, etc. Tailag (steer camel), guna (steer), döne (camel colt in the fourth year), at (camel gelding), buur (camel stallion) refer to male camels, while gunj (three-year-old camel), dönj (four-year-old camel),  inge (camel cow) refer to female camels.

2.2. SEMANTIC GENDER DISTINCTION IN PERSONAL NAMES

2.2.1. Gender distinction kinship terms

The gender of a person is distinguished by the meaning of the kinship name. Words such as nökhör (husband)- ekhner (wife), aav (father) - eej (mother), övöö (grandfather)-emee (grandmother), akh (brother)-egch (sister), khürgen (son-in-law)-ber (daughter-in-law), etc. are understood by the meaning of the vocabulary as gender distinction, and we can understand words such as father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, and sister-in-law with the definition of in-law by the meaning. Words such as nagats-övöö (uncle-grandfather), nagats-emee (uncle-grandmother), khadam akh (brother-in-law), khadam egch (sister-in-law), khadam aav (father-in-law), khadam eej (mother-in-law) are understood by the meaning of the words grandfather, grandmother, brother, and sister. The word brother-in-law is understood depending on the context.

2.2.2. Semantic Gender Distinction in Personal Names

Furthermore, this study examines whether it is possible to determine the gender of an individual in Mongolian based on personal names. Researcher D. Badamdorj: [1, p. 250-251] “There is no special suffix to distinguish between male and female names in Mongolian names, and but genders of personal names are semantically recognized. You can tell if a person is male by hearing the names. Chingis, Temüjin, Khasar, Bilgüün, Mergen, Sükhbaatar, Choibalsan, etc. You can tell if a person is female by hearing them. Mandukhai, Khulan, Suvd, Yesüi, etc. There are many names for men called baatar. There are many names for women called tsetseg (it means flower), chimeg (pretty-pretties), maa (mother in Tibetan ), goo (pretty, beautiful), for example, Altanchimeg, Altmaa, Altangoo, etc.”

In this regard, researcher D. Badamdorj [1, p. 244]: From a historical perspective, it can be said that Mongolian names fall into two categories: symbol and taboo. According to the researcher D. Badamdorj [1, p. 244-245], Mongolian names have meanings that symbolize future happiness and goodness. People are named by words and numbers such as the place of birth, mountains, water, stars, and celestial bodies, symbolizing peace and happiness, longevity, bravery, courage, growth of plants, beauty, purity, honor, abundance, wealth, government, knowledge, and blessings.

Taboo meaning of the name is

1. The idea of hiding the identity of a person by giving them a bad name.

2. Changing gender, that is, giving a male child a female name, and having a sense of calming and protecting. 

3. It is believed that the Mongolians do not give the names of Chingis Khan, Khubilai Khan, Bogd Gegeen, and their parents, because it is too grave. [1, p. 246]

As mentioned earlier, in modern Mongolian, gender is distinguished by the meaning of the word, and there are common names given to both men and women, as well as names that a Mongolian speaker can easily distinguish between a man's name and a woman's name when hearing them. Names that are difficult to distinguish between men and women when hearing a Mongolian name include Mongolian names for places, mountains, stars, water, and beings, as well as the names of the days of the week.

Some names of Tibetan and Sanskrit origin are difficult to distinguish between genders. This is because a Mongolian does not know the meaning when he hears them. In order to show that it is possible to determine the gender of male and female names, we have made an attempt to determine the gender of male and female names based on dictionaries and the website of the National Statistics Office of Mongolia.

2.3.MALE NAMES

According to works such as D. Enkhbat [8], Ts. Suvd [23], D. Badamdorj [1], Sh. Choimaa,  M. Bayarsaikhan and others [5], and Ts. Shagdarsüren and others [22], Mongolian male names often have meanings symbolizing the names of the kings of Chingis Khan's dynasty, the names of mountains, rivers, and planets, courage, knowledge, longevity, and abundant life.

When giving a Mongolian male name, the words that symbolize mountains, stars, long life, wealth, government, unity, knowledge, blessings, and the brave, courageous, decisive, and supportive character of a man are added to the two-word names of Mongolian male names, such as bat (strong), baatar (hero), bold (steel), bal (spirit, energy in Tibetan ), bayan (rich), saikhan (nice, charming), bayar (delight), tenger (the sky), tör (state), togtokh (settle, stability), tulga (fireplace), nairamdal (friendship), nasan (lifelong), taivan (peace), badrakh (bloom), mörön (large river), tamir (health, vigour), erdem (wisdom, learning), jargal (happiness), mend (well being), khüü (son), etc. These words can be used alone to name a male person, as well as to create two-word names.

Masculine personal names in Mongolian may occur either as single lexical items or in forms with the suffixes -aa/-oo/-öö/-ee. In addition, male names are frequently formed according to a compound structure (name1 + name2). The following section examines the meanings of commonly used Mongolian male personal names.

2.3.1 Common Mongolian Male Names

Common Mongolian male names are often formed based on semantically rich lexical elements that reflect cultural values, historical figures, and desirable personal qualities, as illustrated by the following examples.

BAT (BATU). A 13th-century political figure and military commander, and grandson of Chingis Khan. [6, p.327] This name is definitely a masculine name for the Mongols. In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Mongolian language [28]: Bat. 1. Unbreakable, steadfast, solid, stable: firmly confidential, firmly established, firmly stable.  The name Bat can be used alone or in the form Bataa, and can also be used to name a male person by creating a name using the types “Bat+name2” or “Name1+Bat”. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolian [27], there are names such as Bat-554, Bataa-1437, etc.

Bat+name2 type. There are names such as  Bat-Erdene (Bat+treasure)-16479, Batsaikhan (Bat+charming)-8005, Battör (Bat+state)-2540, Battulga (Bat+fireplace)-8682, Battogtokh (Bat+settle)2704, Batmend (Bat+well being)-530, Batbaatar (Bat+hero)-5070, Batbold (Bat+steel)-7460, Batsükh (Bat+axe)-5292, Batjargal (Bat+happiness)-9043, Batbayar (Bat+delight)-11145, Batdorj (Bat+ precious stone in Tibetan)-2936, Batnairamdal (Bat+friendship)-247, and so on. [27]

Name+Bat type. There are names such as Enkhbat (Peaceable+bat)-5973, Mönkhbat (Eternal+bat)-10409, Saikhanbat (Charming+bat)-26, Tulgabat (Fireplace+bat)-62, Tsagaanbat (White+bat)-14, Ulaanbat (Red+bat)-2, Sharbat (Yellow+bat )-2, Törbat (State+bat)-1723, Tögsbat (Perfect+bat)-124 and so on. [27]

BAATAR (HERO.) In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Mongolian language [28]: Baatar.-not knowing fear, brave and courageous. The name Baatar is used alone and in the form Baataraa, and also forms male names in the form “Baatar+Name2”, “Name1+baatar”. According to statistics [27], there are Baatar-3140, and Baataraa-3.

Baatar+Name2 type: Baatarbat (Hero+bat)-15, Baatarkhüü (Hero+son)-1682, Baatarsükh (Hero+axe)-575, Baatarbold (Hero+hard steel)-144, Baatarbal (Hero+bal)-3, Baatar-Uul (Hero+mountain)-2, Baatarkhangai (Hero+mountainous and fertile pastures)-1, Baatarbayar (Hero+gladness)-16, Baatarmönkh (Hero+eternity)-54, Baatartör-4 (Hero+state), Baatar-Erdem (Hero+wisdom)-1, etc.

Name1+baatar type: According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], Ontsgoibaatar-5, Khüchitbaatar-297, Mönkhbaatar-5032, Tsogtbaatar-1953, Törbaatar-83, Tögsbaatar-173, Otgonbaatar (The youngest+ hero)-5624, Uuganbaatar (Elderborn+hero)-1935, Tsagaanbaatar (white+hero)-315, Khatanbaatar (Queen+hero)-2312, etc.

BAL. Tibetan language word Tsog. It means spirit and energy in Tibetan. The assembling of far and wide. [5, p.531).

Bal+name2 type.  Balkhüü-27, Balt-129, Balbaatar-4, Balaa-2, Balsükh-2, etc.

Name1+bal type. Mönkhbal-7 (Eternal+bal), Otgonbal (the youngest+bal)-148 Mongonbal (Silver+bal)-28 Baatarbal (Hero+bal)-3 and so on.

BOLD. In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Mongolian language [28], the word “Bold” is explained as “hard steel”. In the Dictionary of Mongolian personal names [5. p. 773], the Persian pulad, polat, and in Mongolian script “bolod” means steel iron. In Russian personal names, it occurs in the form of bulat…”. According to statistical data [27], Bold is 3,372.

Bold+name2 type. Male names formed using the Bold+name2 type are Boldsukh-219, Boldbat-92, Boldbaatar-6516, Bolddorj-4, Boldtulga-39, Boldkhüü-215, Boldbayar-827, Boldtogtokh-2, etc.

Name1+Bold type. Male names formed using the Name1+bold type: Ganbold (Steel+bold)-9057, Batbold (Firmly strong+bold)-7460, Enkhbold (Peaceable+bold)-5437, Altanbold (Gold+bold)-91, Möngönbold (Silver+bold)-30, Khürelbold (Bronze+bold)-57, Önöbold (Lasting+bold)-1913, Mönkhbold (Eternal+bold)-2094, Erhesbold (Planet+bold)-52, Baatarbold- (Hero+bold)144, Atarbold (Virgin+bold)-45, Zandanbold (Sandalwood+bold)-6 and so on. 

DORJ. A word in Tibetan that means precious stone. [5, p. 577].

According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], the name Dorj alone is 1717, and Dorjoo is 42.

The Dorj+name2 type resulted in names such as Dorjkhuu (Dorj+son)-54, Dorjbat (Dorj+firmly stable)-412, Dorjbaatar (Dorj+hero)-73, Dorjbold-5 (Dor+hrad steel), Dorjdavaa (Dorj+Monday in Tibetan)-58, Dorjmyagmar (Dorj+Tuesday in Tibetan)-40, Dorjlkhagva (Dorj+Wednesday in Tibetan)-65, Dorjpürev (Dorj+Thursday in Tibetan)-871, Dorjbaasan (Dorj+ frieday in Tibetan)-10, Dorjbyamba (Dorj+Saturday in Tibetan)-24, Dorjnyam (Dorj+Sunday in Tibetan)-156, etc.

Using the Name1+dorj type, many names will be created, such as Altandorj (Gold+dorj)-13, Möngöndorj (Silver+dorj)-24, Baatardorj- (Hero+dorj)-91, Enkhdorj (Peaceable+dorj)-56, Mönkhdorj (Eternal+dorj)-467, etc.

SÜKH (SUKH). The Explanatory Dictionary of the Mongolian language [28] describes it as “a weapon made of iron, with a blade and a shoulder, used for hitting and breaking things.” The noun Sükh, in addition to being in the form of Sükh alone, can also be used as a masculine noun in the form of Sükh+ner2, Name1+sükh, similar to the previous nouns. According to statistics [27], there are Sükh-218, Sükhee-591.

In the form of Sükh+Name2 were formed namy names such as Sükhkhüü (Axe+son)-10, Sükhbat (Axe+strong) -4242, Sükhbold (Axe+hard steel)-840, Sükhbaatar (Axe+hero)-4835, Sükhmönkh (Axe+Eternal)-13, Sükhtömör (Axe+iron)-141, Sükhtogtokh (Axe+stability)-9, Sükhkhürel (Axe+bronze)-2, etc.

In the form Name1+sükh, many names are formed, such as Altansükh (Gold+axe)-3716, Möngönsükh (Silver+axe)-473, Khürelsükh (Bronze+axe)-859, Baatarsükh (Hero+axe)-575, Batsükh (Strong+axe)-5292, Enkhsükh (Peaceable+axe)-240, Mönkhsükh (Eternal+axe)-645.

If the word sükh is included in a female name, it is Sükh+female name. For example, Sükhmaa-12, Sükhjin-3, Sükhgoo-1, Sükhtsetseg-36, etc.

TULGA. “A tool for placing a pot on top of a fire, with four legs, with three or more legs, on which a fire is lit.” [28] This name is given to male children by Mongolians, symbolizing the owner of the fire. According to statistics, there are Tulga-2016, Tulgaa-486. The names of the form “Tulga+Name2” are Tulgakhüü-7, Tulgasükh-1, Tulgabat-62, Tulgabaatar-93, Tulgabold-14, etc. The names of the form “khüü, sükh, bat, baatar, bold” are written without translation, since they have been explained before. The names of the form “Name1+tulga” are Altantulga (Gold+tulga)-790, Möngöntulga (Silver+tulga)-717, Khüreltulga (Bronze+tulga)- 421, Gantulga (Steel+tulga)-10313.

TÖMÖR (TUMUR). The main component of heavy metal, steel, and cast iron, which is the embodiment of the human mind [28]. The name Tömör (Iron) is given to a male child with a strong symbol. When naming a female child, it is used with flowers and prettiess that are part of a female name. According to statistics, the name Tömör-1144, Tömöröö-1147.

Tömör/tumur+name2 type: Tumurbat (Iron+strong)-545, Tumurbaatar (Iron+hero)-3275, Tumurkhuu/Tömörkhüü (iron+son) -447, Tumurchödör (Iron+tether)-1175, Tumurbold (Iron+hard steel)-5, etc.

Name1+tömör/tumur type: Altantömör-4 (Gold+iron), Möngöntömör/ Munguntumur (Silver+iron)-3, Gantumur/Gantömör (Steel+iron)-5323, Battömör/ Battumur (Strong+iron) - 2179, Khatantömör/ Khatantumur (Queen+iron)-208, Mönkhtömör/Munkhtumur (Eternal+iron)-178, etc.

KHANGAI. It is described as a land with mountains, forests, rivers, trees, and soft black soil. [28] The name Khangai is given to a male person. According to statistics, there are 4950 people named Khangai.

Khangai+name2 type. Khangaibat-6, Khangaibaatar-109, Khangaibold-2, Khangaisaikhan-58, Khangainbaatar-1.

Name1+khangai type. It is formed as Altankhangai-7, Mungunkhangai-3, Khürelkhangai-3, Batkhangai-125, etc.

2.3.2. Male Names of Rulers and Other Figures in “The Secret History of the Mongols”

Ts. Suvd's work “Study on the Frequency of Mongolian Personal Names in the 20th Century” [23, p.42-43] states: “In the Mongolian personal name database, the names of kings such as Chingis, Temüjin, Van Khan, Yesükhei Baatar, Manduul, Bat, Mönkh, Khubilai, and Togoontömör, the names of queens such as Mongoljingoo, Goomaral, Öelün, Börte, Yesüi, Yesügen, Khulan, and Mandukhai, and the names of Chingis Khan’s children, brothers, and generals such as Khasar, Belgüdei, Shikhikhutag, Züchi, Chagaadai, Ögedei, Sübedei, and Mukhulai are frequently found.”

Our research shows that it is common for Mongolians to give their male children the names of men in the Secret History of the Mongols. Here is a study of the most common names given to their children. Mongolians commonly give their boys names such as Chingis Khan, Chingis, Kubilai, Yesükhei Baatar, Ögedei, Mönkh, Shikhikhutug, and Sübedei.

CHINGISKHAN. Chingiskhan (1162-1227)- the founder of the Great Mongolian Empire, a prominent political figure, and military commander. His name was Temüjin, and his title was Chingis Khan. [6, p. 35] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are many people named Chingis. These include: Chingis-710, Chingisbaatar (Chingis+hero)-28, Chingisbat (Chingis+strong)-4, Chingisbold (Chingis+hard steel)-42, Chingiskhüü (Chingis+son)-5, Chingiskhan-2, Chingiskhaan-3, Chinges-178, Gingiz-6, etc. There are Temüüjin-8547, Temüjin-673. There are 7 names with the name Khan.

YESUKHEI/YESÜKHEI BAATAR.- A Mongolian aimag chieftain and political figure before the establishment of the Great Mongolian Empire, Yesükhei Baatar was Chingis Khan's father, and grandson of the Mongol Khan Khabul. [6, p.101] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], Yesükhei Baatar-15, Yesükhei-774, and Yesügei-12.

BELGUDEI/BELGÜDEI. One of the two sons of Yesükhei Baatar from another queen. [6, p. 102] According to statistics [27], Belgüdei-383, Belgütei-610, Bilgüütei-346, Belgütei-150, etc.

BOORCHU (BOGORCHU) A political figure and military general of the Great Mongolian Empire. The son of Nakhu Bayan of the Arulad tribe. [6, p. 282] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are 127 Boorchi, and 5 Boorchu.

BOROKHUL-One of the four orphans raised by the mother of Ögelun and one of the four knights of Chingis Khan. [6, p.126] There are Borokhul-30 in Mongolia.

CHAGATAI (TSAGADAI). Chagatai (1183/1185-1245) the second son of Chingiskhan, the founder of the Mongol Chagatai state in Central Asia. [6, p. 549] According to statistics, there are 75 Chagatai, 3 Chagatai, and 1 Chagadai in Mongolia.

JAMUKHA- Chief of the Jadaran aimag and a rival of Temüjin. [6, p. 76]. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], 50 people have the name Jamukha.

KHASAR. A political figure and military commander of the Great Mongolian Empire. The younger brother of Chingis Khan. The second son of Yesükhei Baatar. [6, p. 126] According to statistics, there are 362 Khasars. Khasarbaatar-5, Khasarbold-4, Khasarbat-3, Khasarkhuu/Khasarkhüü-4, etc.

MUNKH (MÖNKH). The Fourth Great Khan of the Great Mongolian Empire (1251-1259) [6, p. 631]. According to statistics [27], the following male names are formed: Münkh (Eternal)-1256, Münkhkhaan (Eternal+king)-17, Münkhkhüü (Eternal+son)-28, Münkhbat (Eternal+strong)-10409, Münkhbaatar (Eternal+hero)-5032, Münkhbold (Eternal+hard steel)-2094, Münkhtenger (Eternal sky)-439.

ÖGEDEI (ÖGÖDEI) - The second great khan of the Great Mongolian Empire, who ruled from 1229 to 1241. [6 p. 379] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27] , Ögedei-32, Ögeedei-1, Ögödei-270, Ögöödei-270 and Ögüdei-1.

SHIKHIKHUTUGU. The first judge and law enforcer of the Great Mongolian Empire. [6, p. 274] According to statistics [27], there are 52 Shikhikhutags and 10 Shikhikhutugus.

SÜBEDEI (SUBEDEI): A prominent military commander of the Great Mongolian Empire. [6, p. 233] Our research has identified Suveedei-10, Subeedei-450, and Subedei-281.

ZÜCHI. Jochi. The eldest son of Chingis Khan. The king of the state that later became known as the Jochi Dynasty or the Golden Horde. [6, p. 355] According to statistics [27], Züchi-100. Names are formed as Züchibaatar-1, Züchibat-1, etc.

2.3.3. Names that include animal names for men

When giving a man an animal name, it symbolizes the courage and strength of the animal, as well as protection from harm. For example, According to statistics [27], Baavgai (bear)-52, Chononkhüü (wolf+son)-2, Tuulaikhüü (hare+son)-107, Nokhoikhüü (Dog+son)-19, Nokhoibaatar (Dog+hero)-1, Khaliu (Otter)-7, Bar (tiger)-31, Barkhüü (Tiger+son)-238, Barbat (Tiger+strong)-4, Barbaatar (Tiger+hero)-100, Barbold (Tiger+hard steel)-9, Bars (Pard)-125, Barsaa-14 (Pard+aa morpheme), Barsbat (Pard+strong)-11, Barsbaatar (Pard+hero)-103, Barskhüü (Pard+son)-12, Mogoi (Snake)-2, Mogoikhüü (Snake+son)-1, Khulgana (Mouse)-50, Khulganaa (Mouse+aa morpheme)-109, Khulganakhüü (Mouse+son)-2, etc.

There are some names of occupation, which related to animals, such as Aduuchinkhuu (horseman+son), Malchin (Herder)-6, Malchinkhuu (herder+son)-11, Ajilchin (worker)-1, Khonichin (Sheepherder)-17, Khonichinkhuu (Sheepherder+son)-4, Temeechin (camel herder)-1 and so on.

2.3.4.Male names containing “khuu/khüü” (son or boy) and “bandi” (novice or discipline of a lama)

The meaning of the word khüü/khuu (son) in the Explanatory Dictionary Mongolian Language [28] is explained as: 1. Own, born male child. According to statistics [27], Khüü-19, Byatskhankhüü (Little+son)-Tomkhüü (Elderly+son)-8, Jijigkhüü (Small+son)-1, Ulaankhüü (Red+son)-597, Sharkhüü (Yellow+son)-277, Tsagaankhüü (White+son)-538, Khökhkhüü (Blue+son)-39, Borkhüü (Brown+son)-818, Sainkhüü (Good+ son) - 626, Muukhüü (Bad+son)-3, Khovorkhüü (Unique+son)-2, Khoskhüü (Double+son)- 21, Baskhüü (Also+son)-104, Shinekhüü (New+son)-1149, Bulgankhüü (Sable+son)-171, Baatarkhüü (Hero+son)-1682, Batkhüü (Strong+son)-2934, Ijilkhüü (Same son)-10, Adilkhüü (twin+son)-11, Ochkhüü (Sparkle+son)-111, Odkhüü (Star+son)-2143, etc. The word “boy” is added to the names of the days of the week in Tibetan to form male names such as Davaakhüü (Monday+son)-2327, Myagmarkhüü (Tuesday+son)-84, Lkhagvakhüü (Wednesday+son)-37, Purevkhüü (Thursday+son)-673, Baasankhüü (Frieday+son)-2388, Byambakhüü (Saturday+son)-310, Nyamkhüü (Sunday+son)-1895, etc.

There are many names, which contain the word Bandi-199, Bandikhüü (novice+son)-37, Bandibaatar (novice+hero)-2, Borbandi (Brown+novice)-31, Khokhbandi (Blue+novice)-1, etc.

2.3.5. Names of the sun, moon, stars, planets, and days of the week

The most common names in Mongolian names are Tibetan names for the days of the week. For example, Davaa (Monday), Myagmar (Tuesday), Lkhagva (Wednesday), Pürev (Thursday), Baasan (Friday), Byamba (Saturday), Nyam (Sunday), and so on, and they occur in the names of both men and women.

These can be distinguished by the gender of the words or suffixes attached to them. For example, Sanchir (Saturn)-2877, Sanchirmaa (Saturn+maa)-917, Delkhii (Earth)-15, Delkhiimaa (Earth+maa)-1, Delkhiisaikhan (Earth+beautiful)-3, Delkhiijargal (Earth+happiness)-4, Doloonburkhan (Bigdipper)-1, Barkhasbadi (Yupiter)-199, Angarag (Mars)-1546, Angaragmaa (Mars+maa)-33, Angaragsaikhan (Mars+beautiful)-5, Angaragkhuu (Mars+son)-3, Angaragbat (Mars+bat)-11, Angaragjargal (Mars+happiness)-1, Dalaivan (Neptune)-9, Davaa (Monday)-2453, Davaamaa (Monday+maa)-127, Davaakhuu (Monday+son)-2327, Davaatsetseg (Monday+flower)-308, Davaadulam (Monday+dulam-mother in Tibetan)-1426, Davaajin (Monday+-jin)-2, Davaa-Ujin (Monday+Üjin)-3, Davaalin (Monday+-lin)-1, etc. [27]

2.4. FEMALE NAMES

Mongolian names symbolize mountains, water, plants, animals, health, longevity, wisdom, statehood, blessings, beauty, purity, and honor. If a male child is deliberately named after a woman, it means protection from evil, concealment, and chastity. According to our observations, female names symbolize beauty, purity, flowers, and honor . It is common for Mongolians to give female children the names of queens and princesses of the Mongolian Empire.

2.4.1.The words “goo/-gua” are used in female names

In the Explanatory Dictionary of Mongolian Language [28] the word goo is defined as “a state of being worthy of the soul, attractive, and beautiful: a beauty (a beautiful woman)”. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are 8 people named Gua and 40 people named Goo.

In order to clarify the forms and variants of the names Alangoo, Bargujingoo, Borogchingoo, and Mongoljingoo in the Secret History of the Mongols, we searched the National Statistics Office of Mongolia’s online search program and came up with the following results. These names are used alone, but they are also used in combination with each other. The frequency of the variants of the names was found using the suffixes that form female names and the words that go into female names. These include:

ALANGOO (ALANGUA). Alangoo is a historical figure who lived in the 10th century and was the great-grandmother of the Mongol khans. The golden clan of the Mongolian khans, Borjigin, begins with the youngest son of Alangoo’s mother, Bodonchar Munkhag. [6, p. 46] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27] , there is Alangoo-2. There are variants such as Alungoo-200, Aluungoo-4, Alan-goo-2, Alangua-5, Alungua-122, Aluungua-2, etc.

BARGUJIN-GOO (BARGUJINGUA). The daughter of Bargudai the Wise, the ruler of Bargud aimag. Alangoo was born among the wise men of Bargujin goo and Khori Tümed aimag, Khorilardai Mergen. [6, p. 47] There are quite a few women with this name in Mongolia. Bargujingoo-7, Bargujin-26, Barguujin-3, Bargujingua-8, Bargajingua-1, Bargajingoo-2.

BOROGCHIN-GOO (BOROGCHIN GUA). Borogchin is the name of the wife of Torgoljin Bayan, and is derived from the name of the queen, while goo is a common word in the names of female queens of that time. [6, p. 42] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are Borogchin-goo-5, Borogchin-11, Borgochin-10, Borogchingua-6, Borgochingua-2, and Borgochingoo-1.

MONGOLJINGOO (MONGOLJINGUA). The wife of the wise man Borjigidai. The name Mongoljingoo may indicate that she was a member of the Mongol tribe or the wife of one of such a tribe. [6, p. 41] In Mongolia, there are women named Mongoljingoo-355, Mongoljingua-44, Mongoljin-524, Mongolmaa-109, Mongol-Üjin-2, Mongol-goo-6, Mongoljin-524, Mongolkhatan-12, Mongolgünj-1, Mongoljargal-1, Mongol-Okhin (Mongol+girl)-1.

2.4.2.Other female names in the Secret History of the Mongols

Mongolian female personal names, particularly those recorded in historical sources such as the Secret History of the Mongols, exhibit distinct lexical and morphological patterns which reflect gender and cultural values.

ALAKHA-BEKHI. Another name for a woman in the Secret History of the Mongols is Alakha-bekhi. Alakha-bekhi was the third daughter of Chingis Khan’s great queen Börte Üjin. She is believed to have been born in 1185 [6, p. 544]. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], Alakha-bekhi is 1.

ALTANI.  Altani is the wife of Chingis Khan’s trusted friend Borokhul. [6, p. 507] There are 5 people with this name in Mongolia. The following variants of this name are in the data of the statistical office [27], Altangoo-145, Altangua-14, Altan-Üjin-2, Altanmaa-1, Altanbekhi-3, Altanjin-60, Altangünj-10, Altmaa-114, Altjin-545, etc.

BÖRTE. Börte- The great queen of Chingis Khan. Börte was the first wife of Chingis Khan and the daughter of Dey Setsen of Khongirad province. [6, p. 136] The name Börte-Üjin is 771. It is also spelled as Bört-Üjin-34, Bürt-Üjin-5, Börte-892, Bürte-2, Börtejin-49, Bürtejin-2, Börtöüjin-73, Börteüjin-773, Börtüüjin-6, Bürtüüjin-1, Börtejin-49, and Bürtüjin-5.  

GÜNJÜ/GUNJU. The name Günjü is explained as the daughter of the Khan of the Golden Horde. Günjü is said to be a Chinese word for the daughter of a Khan, not a given name. [6, p. 567] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are Günjü-4, Günjüü-2, Günjü-239, Günjmaa-80, Günjidmaa-433, Günjüülei-5, Günjkhen-11, Günjin-43, Günjid-117, Günj-Üjin-1, Günjeemaa-1, Günjgoo-4, Günjeelei-1, Günjten-1, Günjiimaa-29, Günjee-218, Günjtsetseg (princess+flower)-3, Günjsüren-1, Günjsaikhan-1, and Günjdelger-2.

YESÜGEN. Queen of the fourth palace of Chingiskhan. Yesügen was the younger queen of Ikh Cheren, the chief of the Tatar province. [6, p. 338] According to statistics, there are no records with the name Yesühen queen. The name Yesühen is 26, Yesügen-1439, Yesüigen-198.

YESÜI. The great queen of the third palace of Chingiskhan. Yesüi was one of the wise queens who advised Chingiskhan on important wise policies. [6, p.338] There are 3007 people named Yesüi in Mongolia. There are Yesui-Üjin-403, Yesüimaa-6, Yesüi-behki-4, Yesüi-khatan-5, Yesüi-Günj-3, Yesüijin-299, Yesüilen-92, Yesüilin-2, Yesüijargal-1, Yesüigen-198, Yesüikhen-12, Yesüikhatan-5 and Yesüi-goo-11.

KHADAAN. The name Khadaan (Khadagan) was used to name both men and women in Mongolian historical sources. Khadaan (Khadagan)-Suldus tribe’s Sorkhon Shar’s daughter. [6, p. 164] The sixth son of Khabul Khan. [6, p. 97] The name of 3 people, including the Great Mongolian State Myangani Noyon [6, p. 164], is recorded in the Secret History of the Mongols. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are 387 people named Khadaan. It is clear that the name Khadagan is not used by Mongolians in modern times. This name, unlike other names, is not a name that only refers to women, but is unique in that it refers to both men and women.

KHOO MARAL (KHUVAI MARAL). The wife of Chingiskhan’s great-grandfather Börte-Chono. [6, p. 37] The name Khoo Maral has the following variants. In Mongolia, there are 2871 people named Goo-Maral, and 945 people named Gua-Maral. There are many names that combine these two words. There is no name Khoo-Maral. Goo has a variant gua, and many names have been created, such as Goo-günj (beauty+princess)-49, Goo-goo (Beauty+beauty)-2, Goomaa (Beauty+maa)-1, Goo-40, Goosüren (Beauty+Mascot in Tibetan)-4, Goo-saikhan (Beauty+charming)-1, Goosarnai (Beauty+rose)-3, Goojargal (Beauty+happiness)-4, Goopürev (Beauty+Thursday in Tibetan)-1, Gua-8, Guamaa-1, Gua-günj-3, Guatsetseg (Beauty+flower)-27, Guasaikhan-4, etc.

The name Maral is explained in the Secret History of the Mongols as the commander of thousand soldiers of the Great Mongolia. If Maral is used alone, it refers to both men and women. Researcher N. Mönkh [16, p.115]: According to Internet sources, the name Maral is found not only in Mongolia, but also in Iran, Syria, Azerbaijan, etc., and it is always a female name. The following names were formed by adding suffixes such as -maa, -goo, -jin, -gua, -jingoo, -jingua, etc., which form female names.

According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], There are Maralmaa-3612, Maralgoo-1866, Maralgua-641, Maral-Ujin-110, Maralkhatan-1, Maraljin-633, Maraljingoo-1041, Maraljingua-29, etc.

SOKHATAI.  The name Sokhatai is explained as: “Örbei and Sokhatai were the queens of Ambagai Khan.” [6, p. 143] There is 1 person named Sokhatai in Mongolia.

QUEEN KHUGURCHIN. The name Khugurchin is given to the second queen of the Khutugt Jurkhi. [6, p.265] There is 1 person named Khuurchin in Mongolia. There is no name in the form of Khuurchinkhatan.

SORKHAGTANI BEKHI. The great queen of Tolui, the youngest son of Chingiskhan. When the Khereid prince Jaha Gambu joined Chingiskhan in 1203, he gave his queen Sorkhagtani as a wife to Tolui, the youngest son of Chingiskhan. [6, p. 415] There are 18 people named Sorkhagtani in Mongolia. There are also Sorkhagtani bekhi-2, Sorkhagtan-27, and Sorkhagtanbekhi-1.

KHULAN KHATAN. Khulan was the great queen of the second palace of Chingis Khan. In 1204, she met Chingis Khan, and was liked by Chingis Khan for her beauty and wisdom, and became the queen of the second palace. [6, p. 464] The name Khulan refers to a female person. There are 13,893 people named Khulan in Mongolia. Khulankhatan-2, Khatan-18, Khulangoo-899, Khulanbekhi-2, Khulantsetseg-2, Khulantai-2, Khulangua-33, Khulansaikhan-4, Khulanjargal-1, Khulanjin-7, Khulanbaatar-6, etc. It has become the basis of many names. If a woman is named, it is used alone or with a suffix that forms a female name, and when a man’s name is formed, the word baatar is added. The Secret History of the Mongols with Detailed Explanations [6, p. 97] also mentions that the fifth son of Khabulkhan was named Khulan and was called Khulanbaatar.

KHUTUGTAI (KHUTAGTAI). Khutugtai is described as the eldest daughter of Khutugtai-Mergid's Togtoga Bekhi. [6, p. 341] According to statistics [27], the name Khutugtai is 1, and Khutagtai-3.

CHECHEIKHEN. The name Checheikhen is mentioned in The Secret History of the Mongols as the second daughter of Chingiskhan. According to the Altan tovch (Golden chronicle), she is one of the three princesses born to Chingiskhan by Queen Börte. [6, p. 543] According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], the name Checheikhen is 93. Variants are Tsetseikhen-516, Setseikhen-2, Secheikhen-2.

EBEKHEI. The name Ebekhei is mentioned as the younger queen of the Khutugt Jurkhi of Jurkhin aimag. The people of Jurkhin aimag considered themselves to be descendants of Khabul Khan and were early participants in wars. [6, p. 265] According to statistics [27], there are 22 people with the name Ebekhei.

2.4.3.Female names containing the word khatan (queen), günj (princess), dagina (diva)

The lexical elements khatan (‘queen’), günj (‘princess’) and dagina (diva) function as key components in Mongolian female naming practices. They reflect both social status and feminine identity and occur in a range of structural patterns.

Khatan+Name2 type. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27], there are Khatan-18, Khatanmaa (Queen+maa)-1, Khatantsetseg (Queen+flower)-41, Khatangoo (Queen+beauty)-316, Khatangua-28, Khatanjargal (Queen+happiness)-27, Khatansuikh (Queen+palanquin)-12, Khatanchimeg (Queen+pretties)-30, etc.

Name1+khatan type. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27] , Tsetsenkhatan (Wise+queen)-8, Goo-khatan (Beauty+queen)-16, Enkhkhatan (Peaceable+queen)-7, Mönkhkhatan (Eternal queen) -7, etc.

Günj+Name2 type. Günjsaikhan (Princess+charming)-1, Günjgoo (Princess+beauty) - 4, Günjmaa (Princess+maa)-80, Günjiimaa (Princess+ii+maa)-29, Günjtsetseg (Princess+flower)-3, Günjten-1 (Princess+honorific suffix), Günjjargal (Princess+happiness)-1, etc.

Name1+günj type.  Sarangünj (Moon+princess)-32, Narangünj (Sun+princess)-51, Guagünj-3, Googünj (Beauty+princess)-49, Khongorgünj-2 (Sweet+princess), Energünj-40 (Generous+princess), Onorgünj-1 (Large family+princess), Batgünj (Strong+princess)-4, Odongünj (Star+princess), Altangünj (Golden+princess)-10, Möngöngünj (Silver+Princess)-2, etc. There are 164 people named Dagina.

2.4.4.Female name containing Tsetseg (flower) and the name of the flower

Names containing the word “flower” are usually female, if people give to their male children name tsetseg, it could be a euphemism or taboo.  Also, names such as “jargal” (happiness), “bat” (strong) , “baatar” (hero), and “bal” (spirit in Tibetan) can be added to the name “flower” to name a male child. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27] , there are 12 people named “Tsetsegbaatar” (Flower+hero), 38 people named “Tsetsegbat” (Flower+strong), 680 people named “Tsetsegjargal” (Flower+happiness), and 306 people named “Tsetsegbal” (Flower+spirit in Tibetan).

Tsetseg+name2 type.  The number of people named Tsetseg (flower) alone is 390, Tsetsegmaa- 6408, Tsetsegsaikhan -533, Tsetseggoo-4, Tsetseglin- 2, Tsetseglün-1, Tsetsegjin - 8, Tsetseglen - 473, Tsetsegkhen- is 9, and Tsetsegchin-1 [27]. Various flower names can be used to name a female child.

Name1+tsetseg type. Khonkhontsetseg (Bell+flower)-39, Sarnaitsetseg (Rose+flower)-249, Bertsetseg (Larkspur) -470, Lyankhuatsetseg (Lotus+flower)-52, Badamtsetseg (Flower in Tibetan+flower) 2291, Altantsetseg (Gold+flower)-11430, Battsetseg (Strong+flower)-8960, Munkhtsetseg/Mönkhtsetseg (Eternal flower)-9708, Munguntsetseg/Möngöntsetseg (Silver+flower)-3086, Khongorzul (thistle)-10131, Khongorzultsetseg (thistle+flower)-1, Ariuntsetseg (Holy+flower)-1946, etc.

Twin girls are named Ijiltsetseg (Same+flower) and Ikhertsetseg (Twin+flower), and there are 310 people named Ijiltsetseg and 202 people named Ikhertsetseg in Mongolia. There are Udval (Columbine)-2791, Udvaltsetseg (Columbine+flower)-318, Udvalsaikhan (Columbine +beautiful), Udvalgoo (Columbine+beauty)-1, Udvalmaa (Columbine+maa)-38, Sarnai (Rose)-2407, Sarnaitsetseg (Rose+flower)-249, Sarnaikhan (Rose+-khan-deminutive morpheme) -3. Altansarnai (Gold+rose)-369, Möngönsarnai (Silver+rose)-221, Saikhansarnai (Charming+rose)-7, etc.

2.4.5. Female names containing the word “chimeg” (pretties)

The lexical element chimeg (‘pretties’) is commonly used in Mongolian female personal names. It reflects aesthetic values and feminine qualities through various structural formations.

Chimeg+name2 type. There are 173 people named Chimeg. According to the National Statistics Office of Mongolia [27] , Chimegmaa-165, Chimeglen-21, Chimeglin-1, Chimeglün-3, Chimeggoo-1 and Chimgee-1752.

Name1+chimeg type. Saranchimeg (Moon+pretties)-2435, Naranchimeg (Sun+pretties)-3620, Batchimeg (Strong+pretties)-4914 and Goo-chimeg (Beauty+pretties)-1,  Male names are formed as Chimegsaikhan-149, Chimegbaatar-11, etc.

2.4.6. Female names containing the words okhin (daughter/girl), khuuhen/khüühen (miss/lady)

According to the Central Statistical Office [27], There are many names, which contain the words.

Name1+Okhin (girl). Goo-okhin (Beauty+girl)-1, Khökh-Okhin (Blue+girl)-1, Ulaan-Okhin (Red+girl)-1, Shar-Okhin (Yellow girl)-5, Tsagaan-Okhin (White+girl)-4, Bor-Okhin (Brown girl)-10, etc.

Okhin+Name2 type. Okhin (Girl)-59, Okhintsetseg (Girl+flower)-5, Okhinsuren (Girl+Mascot in Tibetan)-3, Okhinbayar (Girl+Happiness)-3, Okhingoo (Girl+beauty)-1, Okhinoo (Girl+-oo lexical morpheme)-90 and so on. If the male name contains this word, it will be Okhinkhüü (Girl+son) -4, Okhinbaatar (Girl+hero) -7, Okhinbat-1. There are some female names, Khüükhen-95, Khüükhenee-4 and Khüükhnee-118.

Name1+khüükhen/khuuhen type. There are Ulaankhüükhen (Red+khüükhen)-108, Sharkhüükhen (Yellow lady)-112, Kharkhüükhen (Black+lady)-1, Khökhkhüükhen (Blue+lady)-12, Tsagaankhüükhen (White+lady)-72, and Borkhüükhen (Brown+lady)-124.

2.4.7. Naming a female with the name of an animal

According to statistics [27], there are many female names that include the name of an animal. These include: Tuulai (Hare)-17, Tuulaimaa (Hare+maa)-1, Tuulaisaikhan (Hare+beautiful)-1, Tuulaikhan (Hare+-khan deminutive morpheme)-1, Bulga (Sable)-35, Bulgan (sable+n -adjective morpheme)-1768, Chandaga (Lapin)-6, Bulgantsetseg (Sable+n+Flower)-240, Bulgamaa (Sable+maa)-336, Bulganmaa (Sable+n+maa)-37, Bulgangoo (Sable+n+beauty)-1, Togos (Peafowel)-60, Togosmaa (Peafowel+maa)-121, and Togossaikhan (Peafowel+beautiful)-2. But, Togoskhüü (Peafowel+son)-3, Togosjargal (Peafowel+happiness)-11, Togosbaatar (Peafowel+hero)-3 could be male names.

2.4.8. Naming a female after the name of God

Mongolians give to their children names of God. According to the Central Statistical Office [27], Tsagaandari-ekh (White Tara)-10, Nogoondari-ekh (Green Tara)-1, Dari-ekh (Tara)-20, Tümendari-ekh (Thousands of Tara)-1, Gegeendari-ekh (Saint Tara)-1, Darimaa (Tara+maa)-94, Daariimaa (beauty in Tibetan+maa)-1014 and so on.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study has examined the possibility of gender distinction in modern Mongolian and draw the following conclusions.

1) Previous research by N. Poppe, B. Rinchen, and other scholars demonstrates that, although Mongolian does not possess grammatical gender as a formal category, there exist suffixes that function to distinguish gender. Suffixes such as -jin, -gtai, -gchin, -lun/lün, and -aa, which frequently occur in female personal names, serve as markers of gender distinction. The present study supports this view (see Table 1).

2) The findings further suggest that the Tibetan element -maa functions as a suffix in Mongolian, forming feminine words and personal names from masculine bases.

3) In modern Mongolian, gender is primarily expressed at the lexical level through the use of words such as eregtei (‘male’), emegtei (‘female’), er (‘male’ for animals), and em (‘female’ for animals). In this sense, modern Mongolian can be characterized as a language that exhibits lexical gender.

4) Our findings suggest that it is possible to distinguish between male and female personal names (see Table 2). Mongolian personal names are typically formed either as single lexical items or as compounds consisting of two elements (name1 + name2). A masculine name is generally formed from a single masculine lexical item, whereas feminine names may be derived from masculine bases through the use of suffixes such as -jin, -lun/lün, -aa, and -maa.

A name formed from two words has the following structure.

1. 1. A masculine name+a masculine name= a masculine name
   2. A feminine name+a masculine name= a masculine name
   3. A feminine name+a feminine name= a feminine name
   4. A masculine name+a feminine name= a feminine name

5) Finally, Mongolian naming practices reflect broader cultural values. Names given to male children often convey meanings associated with wealth, statehood, unity, knowledge, and auspicious wishes, as well as qualities such as bravery, courage, and determination. In contrast, names given to female children tend to emphasize beauty, flowers, pretties, purity, and honor.

 

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