REPRESENTATION OF THE CONCEPT OF TIME AT THE LEXICAL LEVEL OF LANGUAGE

ABSTRACT

Space and time define the boundaries in which a person's life unfolds. The purpose of this article is a systematic consideration of the concept of "time" at the lexical level of the language from functional and cognitive positions. The study focuses on the cognitive function of language, which allows us to identify lexical units with temporal semantics and show their interaction. In this paper, the concept is understood as a multidimensional mental, national-specific formation, including conceptual and definitional, figurative, value components, and containing the entire body of knowledge about the object. The concept of time is included in the structure of the linguistic picture of the world of modern man and is represented in linguistic units.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Пространство и время определяют собой те границы, в которых развертывается жизнь человека. Целью данной статьи является системное рассмотрение концепта «время» на лексическом уровне языка с функционально-когнитивных позиций. В исследовании основное внимание уделяется когнитивной функции языка, позволяющей выделить лексические единицы с темпоральной семантикой и показать их взаимодействие. В настоящей работе под концептом понимается многомерное ментальное, национально-специфическое образование, включающее понятийный, образный, ценностный компоненты, и содержащее всю совокупность знаний об объекте. Концепт времени включается в структуру языковой картины мира современного человека и репрезентируется в языковых единицах.

Keywords: the concept of “time”, temporal consciousness, representation of time, metaphorical representation of time, direction of time movement.

Ключевые слова: концепт «время», темпоральное сознание, репрезентация времени, метафорическая репрезентация времени, направление движения времени.

The concept of time has been reflected in language in numerous scholarly works. In these works, the study of time is addressed from the following perspectives (for a complete classification of aspects of the study of the time category, see L.N. Mikheyeva’s dissertation [5]):

- functional-grammatical and functional-semantic approach: A.V. Bondarko, T.V. Bulygina, A.D. Shmelev, M.V. Vsevolodova, Y.P. Knyazev, and others. This approach considers time as a set of grammatical expression tools in language. These tools combine in the functional-semantic domain and manifest in categories such as temporality, taxis, aspectuality, localization of time, and time sequence.

- semiotic approach: V.V. Ivanov, V.N. Toporov, B.A. Uspensky, and others.

- semantic (logical-semantic) and linguocultural approach: V.Q. Gak, A.A. Zaliznyak, V.I. Karasik, D.A. Katunin, L.N. Mikheyeva and others.

In this regard, N.A. Potaenko provides a detailed description of the temporal lexicon in the Russian language and offers the following classification: substantivators group (lexical items where time is presented as an object and measurable universal environment); correlators group (lexical items that convey the related characteristics of time, the meaning of which covers the position of action in the temporal continuum); parametrizators group (their semantics presents the characteristic of time as an aspect of processes, expressing the temporal extension of these processes); implicators group (lexical items that present various integrations between space and time, time and movement, and time and order) [for details, see: 6, pp. 122-123].

- ethnolinguistic approach: N.I. Tolstoy, S.M. Tolstaya, D.I. Lalayeva, and others. In ethnolinguistic studies, the following types of time are discussed: agrarian time, which is related to the organization of economic activity in connection with natural cycles; liturgical time, associated with religious holidays and fasting; epic time, considered as the time in which individual life events are integrated into the history of generations and the ethnic group, ensuring the continuity of intergenerational connections.

- ethno-psycholinguistic approach: N.G. Sergeyva, E.S. Yakovleva and others.

- cognitive approach: A.V. Kravchenko, E.V. Rakhilina, S.A. Chugunova, Y.S. Stepanov, K.G. Krasukhin, and others. The object of these studies, within the anthropocentric framework, covers the interaction between language and humans, where the human subject is considered the central figure. This interaction is analyzed as the core of the understanding of time, thought processes, and the formation of knowledge. Issues such as how humans perceive time, the reflection of universal and ethno-specific temporal concepts in consciousness, and their manifestation in the linguistic worldview are explored. The study of the time concept within the cognitive approach involves the creation of models that describe the individual's perceptions of time-related events. In cognitive linguistics, the study of the "time" concept is approached synchronically, based on the understanding of language concepts and categories as part of a field structure.

V.G. Gak describes the "time" concept as a model with both external and internal structures. The external structure of time is determined by its relationships with other concepts and events. These external relationships manifest through three events: a) the transition from other concepts to the concept of time; b) the transition from the concept of time to other concepts; c) the syncretism of time and other concepts, meaning the inseparable expression of time and another concept in a specific context. According to the researcher, the general development of meaning moves from more concrete, perceptible meanings to more abstract ones. The expression of subjective attitude and evaluation represents the final stage in the semantic development of many words and forms: all means of expressing subjective meanings in language are secondary. However, the relationship between concepts can also be manifested in the reverse direction: the meaning of language forms can develop not only in the spatial-temporal direction but also in the temporal-spatial direction. V.G. Gak examines these relationships through various domains and focuses on relationships such as "movement – time," "space – time," "activity – time," and "human – time." At the same time, he also explores relationships like "time – activity," "time – cycle," "time – rhythm," "time – logical relations," and so on [for more details, see: 2, pp. 124-129].

- diachronic approach: G.V. Zvezdova, N.V. Ivashina, N.G. Nikolayeva, and others. Considering the contributions of each approach to the study of time helps to comprehend these fundamental phenomena in a complex and holistic manner in human life. This approach allows for a deeper philosophical examination of time.

The concept, in our view, is a multidimensional, nationally specific mental structure, which combines components of conceptual and definitional character, image, and value, and encompasses the totality of knowledge about an object. The concept of time is part of the structural worldview of modern humans and is represented through linguistic units.

In languages, there are specific "time words" – nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs – that directly point to time intervals, their continuity, and their subjective connotations, indicating that time is inseparable from human and natural life. Additionally, languages also contain auxiliary means – prefixes, conjunctions, affixes, and other tools that connect the time of events and actions. In the Russian language, the main word that unites all other words into a single temporal domain is the word "time." The selection of a particular word to describe a specific situation depends on which time model (linear or cyclical) the speaker associates with what is being described. Words expressing time will differ when used based on these conceptions: nouns such as пора, период, сезон (reflecting the cyclical conception of time), время (reflecting the linear conception of time); adjectives like прошлый (cyclical time conception), минувший (linear time conception); adverbs such as впредь (cyclical time conception), в будущем (linear time conception), and so on.

The analysis of dictionary definitions reveals the qualitative and quantitative diversity of the worldview of time, which is presented through the content side of linguistic units. Thus, in addition to words with a "pure" time meaning, such as минута, день, год, время, будущий, сейчас ("minute," "day," "year," "time," "future," "now"), there are many other words in the language whose meanings can only be explained in relation to time. For example, “медленный” – an action or event that takes place or is carried out over a long period of time; “хроника” – the recording of historical events in chronological order. Therefore, in lexical semantics, we can distinguish between words that specifically express time (such as время, вчера, тогда, прошлый, час, etc.) and words in which the temporal feature is expressed in a syncretic form along with other features (such as ждать, планировать, опаздывать, спешить, стремительный, допотопный, желторотый, вечный, etc.) [see: 4, pp. 168-170]. In Russian, for example, the words мгновения and миг ("moment") are considered indicators of emotional time, associated with an increase in emotional tension. This illustrates how time is expressed in linguistic units in a multifaceted and emotional way.

The analysis of the methods of presenting time through language can be linked to concepts that determine the relationship between the concept of time and human linguistic and extralinguistic activities. These concepts transform the real world into the "projected world" of human consciousness. The shift in the speaker’s worldview mostly occurs at the perceptual (sensory) level of space and time. This approach brings forth significant concepts related to how time enters language and how the human mind shapes its perception of the world.

Perceptual time reflects the sequence of events (past, present, and future) through human senses, emotions, thoughts, and memory. Therefore, sometimes we feel that time is stretching (because the passage of time appears to slow down), while at other times we think that time is flying (as the passage of time seems to accelerate). The concept of time's peripheral features includes the variability of time (i.e., the possibility of time speeding up or slowing down). This analysis shows that time is not only based on objective and external factors but also reflects how it affects human psychological and emotional experiences. The experience of time is also subjective, and it is felt differently by each individual. Time intervals are semantically considered by language bearers: time passes under the sign of specific events, and the movement of time is a sequence of events. For humans, the perception of time and the attitude toward it become more important than the physical continuity of time itself; the filling of time with events and its quality are more significant than its natural flow. It is possible to talk about lexical concepts when reflecting concepts through words. However, lexical concepts do not fully represent the conceptual system, and therefore, the semantics of language should not be equated with the conceptual system. Nonetheless, studying the meaning of linguistic expressions is a direct path to the study of concepts and conceptual domains.

Time (like many other abstract concepts) is primarily expressed through metaphorical lexicon. For example, the most commonly used characteristic expression of time in the Russian language, “время течёт” ("time flows"), is based on a metaphor, where time is thought of as a fluid flow, like a river (thus adopting the entire associative complex of this image). Expressing the "flow" of time (or any other characteristic) through a non-metaphorical means seems extremely difficult (and sometimes even impossible). The movement of time is presented through various phrase combinations: время идёт, дни бегут, близится полночь, день уходит, год прошёл, and so on. This illustrates how time is brought to life by the metaphorical means of language and how people concretize the abstract nature of time.

Let’s consider the situation represented metaphorically by the expression “приближается ночь” ("the night is approaching"): a person is within a space and is facing toward the future; the night is moving toward them. The understanding of the future as being "ahead" and the past as being "behind" is also confirmed in the dictionary definitions of the words "ahead" and "behind." Additionally, this pattern is noted by many researchers: "... The future is associated with 'ahead' for us, while the past is linked to 'behind' " [7, p. 21], and so on. Thus, the night, which is still in the future, moves toward the person waiting for it in the present moment, and then gradually shifts into the past. In this explanation, time intervals are always understood as a flow coming from the future through the present to the past. When discussing such an interpretation of the movement of time, Y.S. Stepanov notes it as the only possible direction: "In our modern society, time seems to flow toward us as if it were coming from 'ahead,' flowing toward us through our line of sight, from infinity to our eyes" [7, p. 21]. Such a natural flow of time reflects in people’s daily lives and thought processes.

The second model is defined by time (spatial) considerations that show the direction of time’s movement more clearly: время движется к полночи, день близится к концу ("time is approaching midnight," "the day is nearing its end"), and so on. Although these expressions are formally similar to the time movement representations in the previous model, they convey an entirely opposite meaning in terms of determining the direction of time’s movement. For instance, the situation referred to by the phrase "time is approaching midnight" is explained as follows: space here consists of two main points – "the person's position" (the present moment) and midnight (the point where time is moving toward). There is a specific time distance between the present moment and midnight. This time distance is considered an "intermediate space," depending on the position of the person observing the movement of time. Among the potential meanings of this phrase, the idea of time "approaching midnight" also implies the possibility of this distance being "crossed" in some way. However, this transition is not dependent on midnight, as midnight is shown as a static point, assumed to be motionless. Furthermore, the person’s position is so insignificant that their role is virtually ignored and not mentioned at all. Thus, in this situation, the movement of time is understood as "carrying the person along" and bringing them toward a specific time interval, such as midnight. Since the "movement of time" is understood solely as a possible "task" moving toward the future (i.e., time only moves toward the future), this suggests that the direction of time’s movement is from the past to the future. In this concept of time, since "midnight" is still in the future, the movement of time continues from the past to the future – that is, time moves from the past toward midnight. Since midnight has not yet occurred, it is considered a future moment, meaning the flow of time is still moving from the past to the future.

In this model, the movement of time can be understood not only as linear but also as arc-like: день клонится к вечеру (к закату) ("the day slopes toward the evening" / "toward the sunset"). The basis for this metaphor lies in the observation of the sun’s movement across the sky (cf. солнце клонится к закату – "the sun slopes toward the sunset"). In such a concept, the path of time’s movement is presented as a movement of "sloping" or "descending," but the notions of "lifting" or "ascending" do not fit in this context. For example, in expressions such as "the day is coming to an end" or "the day is moving on," time’s movement is depicted in a descending trajectory, whereas the concept of ascending is rarely used in such contexts. Similarly, in the static model, expressions like на склоне дня, на склоне лет ("at the end of the day," "in the twilight years") can also be observed. In general, since the trajectory of time's movement is not always clearly defined, it is logical to interpret such expressions as indicating a linear movement of time. This promotes the understanding of time as progressing along a fixed, unchanging line.

One of the characteristics of this model is the existence of a space rich in temporal measurement indicators, where time and humans move in the same direction. This characteristic can be considered the dominant principle of the model.

The direction of time’s movement along one axis includes several other models, represented by expressions such as идти в ногу со временем, обогнать своё время, отстать от своего времени, время несёт нас ("to keep up with time," "to outpace one's time," "to fall behind one's time," "time carries us," and so on). In these expressions, the direction of time's movement is presented primarily as a secondary feature, because here the purpose of the movement of time is to assess the development of human actions and emphasize the passive position humans have in relation to time. Additionally, in all expressions of these models, we are no longer dealing with the movement of time intervals, but rather the flow of infinite time, which complicates the determination of the direction of time's movement. Therefore, to gain a fuller understanding of the issue of determining the direction of time's movement, it seems appropriate to refer to another model in which time does not move, as represented by such expressions.

In another model, time is compared with space (such as an area, a path, etc.), and the determination of time intervals is based on physical, spatial orientations. In this model, the moving entity is the person (since the concept of movement is fundamental and even crucial for understanding the time category). Time intervals are expressed in combinations such as войти в новый год, предстоящий день, идти к этому дню, нас ждёт тяжёлая неделя ("to enter the new year," "the upcoming day," "to go toward this day," "a heavy week awaits us"), and this leads to the conclusion that, in this interpretation, a person is moving toward the future. Human development is only possible in "one direction" – from youth to old age, therefore, movement through time is only possible from the past to the future. This situation can also be applied to synchronous models of the direction of time’s movement, since here, as well, the person is moving along with time. Thus, determining the direction of time's movement is only possible when discussing time intervals, not the "infinite" flow of time. "The concept of time is a complex, multifaceted structure... When learning Russian as a foreign language, the primary lexical base of the concept forms first, and then new associations emerge, expanding the concept's volume, its cognitive layer broadens, and this encompasses the worldview of a person who does not know the language" [8, p. 283].

Progressive movement is always positively evaluated, while retreat is viewed negatively (in such expressions, definitions of time intervals often serve as additional evaluative markers): Мы идём к (светлому) будущему ("We are going toward the (bright) future"); Мы идём, возвращаемся (!) к прошлому (тёмному, мрачному) ("We are going, returning (!) to the past (dark, gloomy), and so on. This model is primarily expressed through artistic metaphors. In this case, by considering expressions such as идти вперёд ("to go forward") and идти назад ("to go back"), it is necessary to discuss the primary and secondary nature of the direction of time's movement (progression or regression), that is, the creation of metaphors and how they are manifested. T.K. Elizova writes: "When describing the movement of time in scientific concepts, neutral lexicon is used, and figurative and metaphorical expressions are avoided. The main word combinations used in the scientific representation of this process are those where the noun 'time' is combined with verbs: goes, flows..." [3, p. 88]. At the same time, the backward movement of time (not of humans) is not necessarily perceived as negative. For example, a quote from literature illustrates this: "В воздухе зависли ностальгические грёзы и сентиментальное ретронастроение. Казалось, время внезапно остановило свой бег, недолго потопталось на месте, а затем двинулось назад – обратно в восьмидесятые" ("Nostalgic dreams and sentimental retro moods hung in the air. It seemed that time suddenly stopped its run, paused briefly, and then moved backward – back to the eighties.") (A. Kushnir).

The concept of time has been studied in various aspects of linguistics. Considering the successes of each of the approaches outlined above in the study of time, it helps in understanding these fundamental phenomena in human life in a complex and holistic way. However, as Z.V. Asadov rightly pointed out, "Recently, within the trends of world linguistics, the study of the category of time at the intersection of language and culture within the fields of anthropological and cognitive linguistics, as well as linguistic-sociocultural, seems most relevant to us" [1, p. 379]. Certainly, for humans, the perception of time and their relationship to it is far more important than its acceptance as a physical duration; the fullness of time with events and its quality are more significant than its natural flow.

Determining the direction of time’s movement is only possible when discussing time intervals, not the "infinite" flow of time. However, since the trajectory of time’s movement is often not specified, it is logical to accept this movement as linear in most cases.

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