PRO-VERBS AND PRO-SENTENCES IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

 

ABSTRACT

The article considers pro-verbs and pro-sentences of the modern Mongolian language. Many scientists have devoted their research to studying the pronouns of the modern Mongolian language at the sentence level. Pro-forms were not studied enough at the sentence and discourse levels. In the first part, the pro-verbs in sentences of the modern Mongolian language are explained. We argue that positive and negative modal particles in modern Mongolian could be used as pro-verbs. In the second part, we consider that modern Mongolian particles, nouns, verbs, and adverbs could be utilized as pro-sentences at the discourse level. All examples were taken from modern Mongolian literature and dramas. Finally, the conclusion is made.

АННОТАЦИЯ

В данной статье рассматриваются “pro-verb” и “pro-sentence” современного монгольского языка. Исследования многих учёных были посвящены изучению местоимения современного монгольского языка на уровне предложения. Про-формы недостаточно были изучены на уровне предложения и дискурса. В первой части объясняется “pro-verb” современного монгольского языка в предложениях. Мы утверждаем, что положительные и отрицательные модальные частицы современного монгольского языка могут использоваться в качестве “pro-verb” в предложениях. Во второй части обсуждается “pro-sentence” в современном монгольском языке. Мы считаем, что частицы, существительные, глаголы, наречия современного монгольского языка могут использоваться в качестве “pro-sentence” на уровне дискурса. Все примеры были взяты из современной монгольской художественной литературы и драм. В заключение делается вывод.

 

Keywords: modal particle, pro-verb, pro-sentence, noun, verb, adverb.

Ключевые слова: модальная частица, pro-verb, pro-sentence, существительное, глагол, наречие.

 

Introduction

The present paper aims to describe the types of pro-verbs and pro-sentences in modern Mongolian. Pro-forms were defined by scholars Halliday M. [8], Schachter P. [16], Deborah S. [6], Bernini G. a Ramat P. [9], Schachter P. and Shopen T. [16], Tallerman M. [19] and many others. The term pro-form is a cover term for several closed classes of words which, under certain circumstances, are used as substitutes for words belonging to open courses, or for larger constituents. There are many pro-forms, namely: pronouns, pro-sentences, pro-clauses, pro-verbs, pro-adjectives, pro-adverbs, and interrogative pro-forms in general linguistics. Pro-verbs, pro-adjectives, and pro-adverbs are words that substitute for verbs (or verb phrases), adjectives (or adjective phrases), and adverbs (or adverb phrases) respectively.

Research method. The present study adopted a library research method and utilized a qualitative method for data collection.

1. PRO-VERBS IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

Pro-verbs are discussed by Schachter [17] that the italicized words of sentences like (1) should be identified as pro-predicates:

(1) Jack fell down, but Jill didn’t

Jill isn’t crying, but Jack is

M. Halliday [8, p.125] studied English pro-verbs and argued that “The only members of the class of ‘pro-verb’ are do and happen. These stand for any unidentified or unspecified process, do for actions, and happen for events (or for actions encoded receptively in some kind of passive form)”.

According to our research, modern Mongolian has rich pro-verbs. For example, modal particles such as yum, mon, šűű, bilee, alga, űgűj, and biš could be used as pro-verbs in sentences. Modern Mongolian has an SOV sentence structure. We consider that positive and negative modal particles in modern Mongolian could substitute for verbs in sentences and the sentences have a “SO+particle” structure.

1.1. Positive modal particles as pro-verbs in modern Mongolian

Modal particle  “юм” (yum)

The word “yum” was defined as a “complement particle” [18, p.143,158], a copular particle [4, p.36], a particle with the meaning of becoming a perfect article, materializing a feature, or indicating a certain probability of truth [3, p. 153], a confirmative modal word [2, p. 93; 20, p. 37] and a modal particle [10, p. 337]. According to previous studies the particle “yum” is used after verbs in sentences and expresses confirmative meaning. We argue that “yum” could be used instead of sentence verbs.

“SO+yum” structure (“yum” as a pro-verb)

We argue that “yum” could be used instead of the verb “be” (bolox) and it could be a pro-verb in a sentence. For example,

(2) Mongolian. Ene űnen űg yum.

     Literally. This word true MOD.PRTCL

     English. That is the truth! [10, p.337]

Modal Particle “mön”

The particle “mön” was defined by scholars as a complement particle [18, p. 143, 158], a modal word [22, p. 140, 2, p. 75], a modal particle [10, p. 338], and so on. According to our research, the particle “mön” is used instead of a verb (baix, bolox) and means confirmation. The example was taken from Kullmann R. & Tserenpil D. [10, p. 338].

SO+ mön (as a pro-verb)

(3) Mongolian. Ene minij nom mön.

Literally. This my book MOD.PRTCL

English. This is my book! 

Modal particle “šűű”

Scholars studied the features of the meaning of the word “šűű”. They defined this particle as a confirmative particle [11, p. 111], a sentence particle [18, p. 125], a modal particle [21, p. 170), a modal particle [10, p. 335], an adherent [5, p. 30] and so on. We count that the modal particle “šűű” (шүү) could be used as a confirmative particle and pro-verb in sentences. For example,  

SOV+ šűű (as a particle)

(4)   Mongolian. Ter mongol xel meddeg šűű.

        Literally. He Mongolian language knowPRES:3 PRTCL

        English. He knows Mongolian, I know. [10, p. 335]

SO+ šűű (as a pro-verb)

(5) Mongolian. Maanag er šűű.

      Literally. Stupid man PRTCL

      English.  He is a stupid man, I know. [28, p.189)

In this case, we suggest that šűű is used instead of verbs байх (be) and болох (become) in sentences. However, the verbs can not express the whole sentence's meaning. Although it seems like a pro-verb, we can not explain the sentence's meaning at the sentential level, so we suggest that šűű  is formally used as a pro-verb. Still, it semantically expresses confirmative meaning at the discourse level. In other words, the modal particle šűű in modern Mongolian formally could substitute for verbs, semantically it substitutes for sentences.

(6) Mongolian. Ene minij nom.

      Literally. This my book

      English. This is my book.

If we use šűű, this will be

         (7)  Mongolian. Ene minij nom šűű.

     Literally. This my book MOD.PRTCL

     English. This is my book, you know!

In this case, šűű has a confirmative meaning and is used as a pro-sentence.

Modal Particle “bilee” as a pro-verb

‘Bilee’ is defined by scholars as a defective verb [12, p.353, 18, p.141), a copular particle [4, p.36], a modal particle [10, p. 338] and a confirmative modal word [2, p. 93]. We argue that the particle “bilee” could be used instead of the verb in a sentence structure.

         SO+bilee (bilee as a pro-verb)

(8). Mongolian. Tűűnij exner ix uxaantaj xűn bilee.  

    Literally. His wife is a knowledgeable person MOD.PRTCPL

    English. Oh, yes, his wife is a very intelligent person.

1.2. Negative modal particles as pro-verbs in modern Mongolian

Negative modal particles as negative pro-verbs in modern Mongolian were considered by Enkhjargal D. [7, p. 87-93] in an article, titled “Sentential negative markers as pro-forms of negative sentences in modern Mongolian”. We suggest that “alga”, “biš”, and “ügüj could be pro-verbs, which are used instead of verbs in negative sentences.

Negative modal particle “alga” as a negative pro-verb

John Street [18, p.63] named “alga” as a copular particle and determined its meaning. In his opinion “alga” means ‘is/was not there/here’ or there is/was no.

SO+Neg=SO+alga

We consider that “alga” could be used instead of the verb “bajxgüj” (doesn’t exist, is not). In this case “alga” could be used in sentences of the type: SO+Neg=SO+alga;   alga=is not

      (9). Mongolian. Bagš angid alga.

 Literally. Teacher classroom: LOC. NEG.

 English. The teacher is not in the classroom.

Negative modal particle ‘biš’ as a negative pro-verb

“Biš” could be used instead of verbs and it negates sentences. biš=is not. It has the type SO+pro-verb”= SO +biš. For example,

       (10). Mongolian. Bi bagš biš, oyutan bajna.

        Literally.  I teacher NEG, student be: PRES:1SG

        English. ‘I am not a teacher, I am a student.

Negative modal particle ‘ügüj’ as a negative pro-verb

We suggest that “ügüj” could be used instead of verbs. SO+Neg=SO + ügüj (ügüj=is not, doesn’t exist) The example was taken from Enkhjargal D. [7, p. 90]

(11) Mongolian. Čonos üg Xumka ügend ügüj.

        Literally. Chonos word Humka word Neg.

        English. ‘There is no Chonos word in Humka vocabulary.’

 

2. PRO-SENTENCES IN MODERN MONGOLIAN

Pro-sentences are words like English yes and no, which are used in answering questions, and which are understood as equivalent to affirmative and negative sentences respectively. [16, p.24]. For example, in responding to “Is it raining?”, “Yes” is equivalent to “It’s raining” and “No” is to “It isn’t raining”.

In some languages, the words used as pro-sentences meaning ‘yes’ or ‘no’ can be used as pro-clauses. Giuliano Bernini & Paola Ramat [9, p. 89] consider that the expressions ‘yes’, and ‘no’ are also called pro-sentences, in that they represent an entire sentence with the same propositional content as the utterance in the preceding context. In their opinion ‘No’ represents a whole sentence. For example:

English. A.Have you seen John? – B. No (=I haven’t seen John)

Italian. A.Hai visto Giovanni- B. No (=Non ho visto Giovanni)

The languages of Europe that make use of pro-sentences are in the majority and are precisely the following: Basque; Breton; Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, French, Provençal, Italian, Rhaeto-Romansh, Friulian, Rumanian; German, Dutch, Frisian, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, English; Albanian; Modern Greek; Latvian, Lithuanian; Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Belorussian, Ukrainian, Russian; Hungarian; Maltese. [9, p. 91]. For example:

Spanish. Has Visto a Juan? — No.

Basque. Ikus-i    duʐu Jon?     -Eʐ.

             See-PFP AUX  John?  NEG

Czech.  Viděl jsi Jana?   -Ne.

              Saw: 2SG  John-Acc.  NEG

Hungarian. Láttad John-t?          -Nem.

               Saw: 2SG  John-Acc.  NEG

Russian. Ты видел Ивана?    -Нет.   and so on.

Mongolist Luvsanvandan Sh. [11, 172-173] argued that the words “tijm, tegne, ügüj, biš ” (yes, no) in modern Mongolian can be used instead of sentences. He named the following sentences as sentence words.

  (12)  Q:  Mongolian. Ta önöö oroj manajd očix uu?

      Literally. You today evening our home: DAT come: FUT?

      English. “Will you come to us this evening?“

A: Mongolian. - Tegnee. (Bi önöö oroj tanajd očno.)

     Literally.   –Yes. (I today evening your home: DAT come: FUT)

     English.  -Yes. (I will come to you this evening)

(13) Q: – Ta önöö oroj manajd očix uu?

           You today evening our home: DAT come: FUT?

           “Will you come to us this evening?“

   A: -No. (Bi önöö oroj tanajd očixgüj.)

        –No. (I today evening your home: DAT come:FUT: Neg)

         -No. (I will not come to you this evening.)

Mongolists [20, p. 264;1, p. 278] defined the answers “Yes” and “No” as an improper interjectional sentence. Because the main characteristic of dialect words-sentences is manifested at the level of speech and in the scope of the message, it may have aspects unique to the nation and the social group that speaks the language and may have many versions. In other words, there are dialect words-sentences that only Mongolians speak.

Ochra Utash [14, p.97] examines Halimag language sentences and sentences of single words or inseparable compounds, such as Xudal. (Lie). Űgűj. (No). Tijm. (Yes). Tijm biš. (Not so). Xeregtej (Needed). Xeregtej biš. (Not necessary). Doloon uul. (Seven Mountains). Duraaraa bol. (At will). Čonyn amand orson šagaj. (An ankle in the wolf's mouth). Čűű! (Chuck!), Höž (Go!), Haj (Go!), (Greetings from warm heart!), Bajartaj (Bye!) states that such sentences mean affirming, denying, questioning, warning, doubting, wondering, and expressing feelings.

Tumurtogoo D. and others [20, p. 264] called words such as Za (Ok), űgűj (No), mön (be), biš (not), Tijm (yes), Zűjtej (right), Xudlaa (false), Zöv (right), Buruu (wrong), Neeree (really), Magadgűj (maybe), Bolzošgűj (perhaps), ašgűj (quite good) as particle-sentences.

2.1.Modal particles as pro-sentences

Enkhjargal D. [7, p. 91] suggests that the answers representing sentences in the context could be pro-sentences. The answer “Yes” represents whole sentences in these sentences at the discourse level. We consider that the modal particles Tijm (Yes), Magadgűj (Maybe), Zugeer (Ok), Xereggűj (Don’t need), Mön (confirm that) could substitute for sentences at the discourse level. For example,

(14). Q. Mongolian. Či gerijnxee xoolyg xijdeg yum uu?

Literally. You home meal do Mod.PRTCL?

English. Do you cook for your family?

A.  Mongolian. -Tijm.  (=Yes, I cook for my family. )

Literally. Yes. 

English. Yes. = I cook for my family. [23, p.80 ]

(15). Q. Mongolian. Tegvel xűleesen hűntej biz dee.

             Literally. Then wait PAST person: COM MOD.PRTCL

             English. Then there is someone waiting, right?

A. Mongolian. Magadgűj.

     Literally. Maybe.

     English. Maybe. [ 27, p.185]

(16). Q. Mongolian. Evgűj yum xelsen baijval uučlaaraj.

             Literally. Uncomfortable things say:PAST be: DET.SUFFIX sorry.

             English. I'm sorry if I said something uncomfortable.

        A. Mongolian. Zugeer.

      Literally. Ok.

      English. It's fine. [27, p. 232]

(17). Q. Mongolian. Bi tsaaš ni battaj, barimttaj yum zöndöö sonsson.

          Literally. I also MOD. solid, factual thing many heard: PAST                  

          English. I also heard a lot of solid and factual things.

1. Mongolian. Xereggűj.

Literally. Needless.

English. I don’t need it.  [31, p.24]

(18). Q. Mongolian. Dorlig doktorijnx gedeg ajl mön űű?

Literally. Dorlig doktor: GEN.POSS. call:PRES family be PRTCL?

English. Is Dorlig the doctor's family?

1. Mongolian. Mön. Mön.

Literally. Yes. Yes.

English. I confirm.  [31, p.29]

2.2.Nouns as pro-sentences

In this part, we consider that nouns could be used as pro-sentences at the discourse level. In the following dialogues, nouns are used as answers and the answers represent the whole sentence. For example,

(19). Q: Mongolian. Chi tegwel yunaas ix aidag ve? ...

     Literally. You then what: ABL much afraid?

     English. What are you afraid of? 

A: Mongolian. -Xulganaas (=Bi xulganaas aidag.)

      Literally.  MouseABL

     English. Of mouse. (I am afraid of a mouse.)  [23, p.82]

In this dialogue, the noun formed by the ablative case “xulganaas” represents the sentence “I am afraid of mice”.

(20). Q: Mongolian. Či yagaad oroitoo ve?  

    Literally. You why late?

    English. Why are you late?

        A:  Mongolian. Ažiltaj. (I have a work)

    Literally. Work COM

    English. I have work. [27, p. 236]

“Ažiltaj” is a noun, which is formed by comitative case and the noun represents a sentence “I have work,

(21). Q: Mongolian. Tegvel čamd hijž chaddaggui xool gej baina uu?

             Literally. So that you DAT do DET.SUF can: PRES.NEG meal that be PRES?

            English. So is there any food you can't cook?

       A: Mongolian. Tsuivan. (I can’t cook tsuivan)

           Literally. Tsuivan.

            English. Tsuivan. [23, p. 80]

(22). Q: Mongolian. Udax uu gej Elma asuuv.     

     Literally. Stay long QUES that Elma ask: PAST.

     Elma asked if he would stay a long time.

      A: Mongolian. Gurvan sar.

      Literally. 3 month

      English. Three months. [29, p. 179]

2.3.Verbs as pro-sentences

We suggest modern Mongolian verbs could be used as pro-sentences at the discourse level. For example,

(23) Q. Mongolian. Či neg udaa xool xijž baixyg ni harsan uu?

             Literally. You one time meal do: PRES see PAST?

             English. Did you see that he was cooking?

  A. Mongolian. Xaraagűj.

        Literally. See NEG.

        English. Did not see. [27, p.234]

(24). Q. Mongolian. Emee maani nadtaj uulzsanaa ogt sanaxgűj gež űű?

               Literally. Grandmother my iCOM. See: PAST never remember: NEG.PRTCL

                English. Will my grandmother not remember meeting me at all?

А. Mongolian. -Sanaxgűj ee.

     Literally. Remember: NEG

     English. She will not remember. (32, p.94)

(25). Q.  Mongolian. Čamd egč bajdagggűj yum uu? 

              Literally. YouDAT sister bePRES.NEG MOD.PRTCL?

              English. Don't you have a sister?

1. Mongolian. Baixgűj.

               Literally. beNEG

               English. I don’t have.  [23, p.79]

(26). Q. Mongolian. Öör či yu xijdeg ve gertee?

Literally. Else you what doPRES QUEST home at?

English. What else do you do at home?

1. Mongolian. Xool xijne.
2. Literally. Meal do: PRES

English. I cook. [23, p.80]

(27) Q. Mongolian. Či baaz deerees irev űű?

Literally. You camp: ABL come: PAST. PRTCL?

English. Did you come from the camp?

1. Mongolian. Teglee.

Literally. Yes. Do: PAST.

English. Yes. I did.  [26, p.515]

(28) Q. Mongolian. Či öglöö dajraad irne űű?

     Literally. You morning come over PRTCL?

     English. Will you come over in the morning?

1. Mongolian. Tegeye l dee. 

Literally. Yes. MOD.PRTCL

English. Yes. Of course. [24, p.97]

(29). Q. Mongolian. Tuvaanij xűműűs Dašdorž övöög bariad yavčixsan uu gež Sondorijg asuuxad:

     Literally. Tuvaan:GEN person:NOM:PL Dashdorj grandpa:ACC take:PAST PRTCL that Sondor:ACC ask:DET:DAT

     English. When Sondor asked if the people of Tuvaan had taken Grandpa Dashdorj away.

A. Mongolian. Tegseen.

    Literally. Did. 

    English. Yes. [32, p.234 ]

2.4. Adverbs as pro-sentences

We also consider that modern Mongolian adverbs could be used as pro-sentences at the discourse level. For example,

(30). Q. Mongolian. Tegvel čamajg xaaya zagnadag uu?

     Literally. Then you: ACC sometimes scold: PRES3 PRTCL?

     English. So do you get scolded sometimes?

1. Mongolian. Xaaya, zarimdaa.

Literally. Sometimes, occasionally.

English.  Sometimes, occasionally. [23, p.81]

(31)  Q. Mongolian. Ger baraagaa xűleegeed avčixsan biz dee?

   Literally. Yurt goods receive: PAST Mod.PRTCL?

   English. You received your yurt and goods, right?

1. Mongolian. Žin tan. (ready.)

Literally. Exactly.

English. Ready. [26, p.515]

(33). Q. Mongolian. Sajn bajna uu xűűx ee?

Literally. Good be: PRES PRTCL child PRTCL?

English. How are you, son?

1. Mongolian. Sajn.

Literally. Well.

English. Well.  [25, p.23]

(34) Q. Mongolian. Xaana ni tsoxiv?

     Literally. Where MODIF. hit: PAST?

     English. Where did it hit?  

A. Mongolian. Deerees ni.

     Literally. Above: ABL MODIF.

     English. From above. [30, p. 35]

Conclusion

This article discusses pro-verbs at the sentence level and pro-sentences at the discourse level in modern Mongolian. Examples of modern Mongolian language are taken from modern Mongolian literature. The following results were found.

• According to our research positive modal particles of modern Mongolian which have confirmative meanings ‘yum’, ‘mön’, ‘šűű’, ‘bilee’ could be used as pro-verbs at the sentence level. 
• Also negative modal particles ‘alga’, ‘biš’, ‘ügüj’ substitute for negative verbs and could represent verbs at the sentence level.
• We suggest that modern Mongolian modal particles, nouns, verbs, and adverbs could be used as pro-sentences at the discourse level.

 

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