CHARACTERISTICS OF GALLICISM IN INTERNATIONAL PAINTING STYLES

ABSTRACT

The present article explores the history of the emergence of art terms, such as Gallicism, which were borrowed from French into English and Russian due to significant influence during certain historical periods. In particular, the influence of Gallicism enriched lexical units of the receiving language, especially in the sphere of art vocabulary for words describing art terms. The paper concludes by emphasizing that borrowing French words is a dynamic linguistic phenomenon that plays a key role in the evolution of English and Russian art terms. The diversity of dictionaries and data sources related to the terminology of art is analyzed, emphasizes their role in deepening understanding, participating in scholarly discourse, and assessing the rich diversity of artistic expression. The article explores the classification of terms based on their parts of speech, demonstrating their significance in providing precise and nuanced descriptions of various painting techniques, styles, and characteristics. The findings of this study have practical implications for artists, art historians, curators, and art educators. It provides a solid foundation for accurate categorization, interpretation, and analysis of artworks, facilitating effective discussions and collaborations among professionals in the field. This study utilized both statistical analyses and empirical research to examine specific terms and analyze scholars' definitions within the terminological corpus of arts. The integration of statistical analyses and empirical research has provided a more robust and comprehensive understanding of art terminology, uncovering nuances, inconsistencies, and emerging trends within the field. Notably, Gallicism's influence has enriched lexical units in the receiving languages, particularly within the realm of art vocabulary used to describe art terms. The article concludes by underscoring the dynamic linguistic phenomenon of borrowing French words, playing a pivotal role in the evolution of English and Russian art terms.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Статья рассматривает историю появления художественных терминов, таких как галицизмы, заимствованных из французского в английский и русский языки в различные исторические периоды. Влияние галицизмов обогатило лексику, особенно в области художественной терминологии. Заимствование французских слов представляет динамичное явление, ключевое для эволюции художественных терминов. Статья анализирует разнообразие словарей и источников терминологии искусства, подчеркивая их роль в научном дискурсе и понимании художественного выражения. Исследуется классификация терминов и их роль в точных описаниях техник, стилей и характеристик живописи. Результаты исследования имеют практическое значение для художников, искусствоведов и кураторов, предоставляя основу для категоризации и анализа произведений искусства. Интеграция статистических анализов и эмпирических исследований обеспечивает более глубокое понимание терминологии искусства и раскрывает новые тенденции в области.

Keywords: painting styles, terminology, art, art history, artistic expression, artistic approaches, art movements, art dictionaries, language of art.

Ключевые слова: стили живописи, терминология, искусство, история искусства, художественное выражение, художественные движения, словари искусства, язык искусства.

The terminology of painting styles forms a crucial part of the art world's language. These terms allow us to categorize, describe, and appreciate the diverse range of artistic approaches found in paintings. By exploring different painting styles and their corresponding terms, we gain a deeper understanding of art history, artists' intentions, and the evolution of artistic expression.

D.S. Lotte's emphasis on the scientific justification of terms applies not only to the realm of science and technology but also to the field of art [1]. In the context of art, terms serve as essential elements of artistic language and contribute to the overall cultural discourse. Like their role in scientific discourse, terms in art facilitate effective communication among artists, art scholars, and enthusiasts.

Just as scientific terms provide a common understanding and framework for discussing scientific concepts, artistic terms play a crucial role in the art world. They enable artists to express and communicate their ideas, influences, and intentions with clarity and precision. Artistic terms serve as a shared vocabulary that allows artists to engage in meaningful dialogue, exchange insights, and collaborate across cultural and linguistic boundaries.

Moreover, terms in art provide a means to define and describe various artistic phenomena, styles, techniques, and creations. They help art scholars and critics to analyze and interpret artworks, offering a standardized language for critical discourse and scholarly research. By providing accurate and precise terminology, these terms enhance the understanding and appreciation of art forms, movements, and individual works. Just as D.S. Lotte argued for scientific terms, the scientific justification of artistic terms ensures their effectiveness and reliability as tools for operating within the realm of artistic concepts [1]. By establishing a solid foundation of well-defined and scientifically justified terms, the language of art can evolve and flourish, fostering deeper insights, innovation, and cultural exchange.

In conclusion, D.S. Lotte's principles regarding the scientific justification of terms apply to the field of art as well. Artistic terms play a vital role in facilitating communication, defining artistic phenomena, and enhancing the overall understanding and appreciation of art. By upholding the standards of scientific justification, the language of art can serve as a sophisticated tool for artists, scholars, and enthusiasts to navigate the diverse and vibrant world of artistic expression.

By employing art-specific terminology, individuals within the art community can enhance their understanding, analysis, and interpretation of artworks, contributing to the development and enrichment of artistic research and discourse.

The terminology of painting styles evolves over time as new movements and approaches emerge. New terms are coined to describe and categorize these developments. Additionally, painting styles often influence and inspire one another, leading to the creation of hybrid or derivative styles. Understanding the historical context and the interconnections between painting styles contributes to a comprehensive knowledge of the terminology.

Drawing on the insights of renowned scholars in the field terminology, we explore the multifaceted nature of terms associated with painting styles. According to Academician V.V. Vinogradov, "the history of terminology in a particular sphere of our culture, productive activity, is simultaneously a narrative about the regularities of the development of knowledge about nature and society [2]". The founder of the Russian terminological school is considered to be D.S. Lotte, while significant contributions to the history of terminology have also been made by G.O. Vinokur and A.A. Reformatsky. [3] D.S. Lotte focused primarily on issues of term formation, borrowing of terminological vocabulary, the creation of conceptual-terminological systems, and problems of scientific and technical term translation. [1] G.O. Vinokur investigated questions regarding the linguistic essence of terms and the relationship between nomenclature and terminology. A.A. Reformatsky paid attention to the monosemantic nature of words when they transition into the category of terms, the intellectual nature of terms, the lack of expressiveness and emotionality in terms, and other related issues.

The prolific varieties of dictionaries, data-sources connected with art terms reflect the dynamic nature of the art world and the continuous evolution of artistic practices. They provide invaluable tools for artists, students, scholars, and art enthusiasts to deepen their understanding, engage in scholarly discourse, and appreciate the rich diversity of artistic expression.

Thus, the availability of diverse dictionaries catering to art terms is a testament to the importance and complexity of the language of art. These dictionaries serve as essential resources, enabling individuals to navigate the vast realm of art styles, movements, and techniques, and fostering a deeper appreciation and comprehension of the artistic heritage.

The research also investigates the diversity of dictionaries and data sources related to art terminology, emphasizing their role in deepening understanding and contributing to scholarly discourse. The article also adopts an interdisciplinary approach, drawing from multiple fields such as linguistics, art history, and cultural studies. By combining insights and methodologies from these disciplines, the study provides a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of art terminology and its evolution. This interdisciplinary approach allows for a deeper exploration of the cultural, historical, and linguistic aspects surrounding the borrowing and adaptation of art terms. It considers the socio-cultural context in which these terms are used, the historical influences that shaped their adoption, and the linguistic implications of integrating foreign terms into the receiving languages. Furthermore, the interdisciplinary approach enables the researchers to analyze the connections between art terminology and broader artistic trends, movements, and historical periods. By considering various perspectives and incorporating diverse disciplinary lenses, the study offers a richer analysis of the subject matter.

Borrowings from the French language have had a significant impact on the terminology of painting and art in general. The influence of French can be traced back to historical factors such as France's rich artistic traditions and its historical prominence as a cultural center. As a result, numerous French terms have been assimilated into the lexicon of art terminology, adding depth and nuance to the discourse surrounding painting styles.

One area where French borrowings have made a notable contribution is in the classification and identification of artistic movements and styles. Terms such as "impressionism," "cubism," "surrealism," and "pointillism" originated in French artistic circles and were later adopted by the international art community. These terms encapsulate specific approaches and philosophies in painting, and their adoption into different languages reflects the enduring influence of French art movements.

French borrowings have also enriched the vocabulary used to describe various techniques and materials in painting. For example, terms like "atelier" (workshop), "palette" (painter's mixing board), and "en plein air" (outdoor painting) have become widely used in the art world. These borrowed words not only provide concise ways to refer to specific aspects of artistic practice but also carry cultural connotations associated with the French artistic tradition.

Furthermore, French borrowings have permeated the terminology related to color and pigment in painting. Terms like "vermilion," "sienna," and "mauve" are examples of color names borrowed from French. These words have become integral to discussions on color theory and serve as a means of accurately describing and identifying specific shades and hues.

It is worth noting that the adoption of French borrowings is not limited to the English language. Many other languages, including Spanish, Italian, and Russian, have also incorporated French terms into their respective art vocabularies, further highlighting the international reach and influence of French art and culture.

Borrowings from the French language have significantly enriched the terminology of painting and art. From the identification of artistic movements to the description of techniques, materials, and colors, French borrowings offer precise and evocative terms that enhance the discourse surrounding painting styles. These borrowings reflect the enduring impact of French art traditions and contribute to the global language of art.

Analyzing borrowed terminological units, we have discovered that painting terms in the Russian language have been borrowed from 15 different foreign languages, with a majority coming from French, German, Italian, Latin, Greek, and English.

The classification of terms according to their part of speech in painting terminology creates a systematic framework for discussing and analyzing painting styles. Nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs work together to convey the richness and complexity of artistic expression, allowing for precise and nuanced descriptions of various painting techniques, styles, and characteristics. This classification system facilitates effective communication and enables a deeper appreciation of the diverse world of art.

The majority of single-word painting terms consist of nouns. The classification of a term as an abstract, concrete, material, or collective noun affects the morphological feature of number for that term ("Acrylic" - It refers to both the painting technique and the type of paint that uses acrylic as its binder. As a painting term, "acrylic" represents a specific medium and technique within the realm of painting.).

Nouns are the main component of terminological phrases. Some attributive phrases include the same term, as they denote different varieties of a particular concept. For example: "Italian watercolor," "English watercolor." Among painting terms, there are a certain number of unchangeable nouns borrowed from different languages, such as "fresco," " aquarelle," "verdaccio," "gouache," "croquis," "nude," "contraste," "umbra," "craquelure," "écorché", "indigo," and " en plein air." These borrowed nouns, often used in their original form, enrich the painting terminology and reflect the multicultural influences and historical connections within the art world.

Adjectives in painting terminology are most commonly used in a classifying function and appear in noun phrases as term elements. In the investigated terminological attributive combinations of "adjective + noun" or "adjective + adjective + noun," relative adjectives prevail. Qualitative adjectives like " vibrant," " subtle," and " expressive" are also categorized as relative adjectives. The exception is the adjectives "light" and " burnt" in the definition of " sienna."

Adjectives occasionally introduce evaluative aspects into the semantic structure of compound terms, as seen in examples like "expressive brushwork," "non-objective art," "sublime landscape," "naive art,” “bold composition," and "delicate shading." In compound color names, substantiated color adjectives are commonly observed, such as "cobalt blue," "vermillion red," and "golden yellow", "emerald green."

The terminological significance of verbs, which is disputed by some researchers, is evident to us. A verbal term possesses all the characteristics inherent in a noun term: it denotes a specialized concept (e.g., to ochre, to tone, to prime); it is used in a specific domain; it has a high degree of precision.

The terminological nature of verbs is confirmed by the presence of related nouns denoting the process (e.g., "to prime" - "priming"), their ability to enter regular derivational relations and serve as elements in word-formation patterns (e.g., "to sketch" - "sketching," "sketch"), as well as their lexical collocations with terms denoting objects of specific production processes (e.g., "to paint a portrait," "to prime a canvas," "to sketch from life") [4].

The verbs "to draw" and "to paint" are of particular interest, as they may initially appear as absolute synonyms. However, derivational derivatives and their different collocations demonstrate their asymmetry. For example: "to draw with a pencil" and "to write with a pencil." In the latter case, the verb "to write" ceases to be a term.

From the perspective of word-formation, a significant part of painting terminology consists of terms with non-derived roots. However, the development of a terminological system is impossible without the formation of new terms based on existing ones [5]. Most derived painting terms are formed through morphological means (suffixation, prefixation, prefix-suffix combinations, and zero-derivation). In addition, compounding is used, which involves combining two or more roots or words. Special attention should be given to terms derived from proper names or eponyms, where proper names serve as components of the term. These terms, known as eponymous terms, are formed by associating a specific person's name with a concept, object, or phenomenon that they are closely associated with or have contributed to significantly. Eponymous terms can be found in various fields, including art, science, literature, and more.

In the realm of art, eponymous terms often emerge when artists or art movements become iconic and influential enough to have their names associated with particular styles, techniques, or artistic concepts.

By incorporating proper names into terminological formations, eponymous terms provide a direct link to the individuals or entities associated with the concept, giving credit to their contributions and establishing a clear association within the artistic lexicon. Such terms not only carry historical and cultural significance but also contribute to the richness and depth of the artistic discourse by recognizing and commemorating the influence and achievements of notable figures in the art world.

In some cases, non-morphological methods of term formation are used, including the substantiation of adjectives and the lexico-semantic method, such as metaphorical transfer of meaning. Among painting terms, we have identified a certain number of such words. For example:

"Capriccio" (music) - a free-form instrumental piece → "Capriccio" (painting) - a genre of landscape painting [6].

" Composition" (music) - In music, composition refers to the process of creating a musical work or piece. It involves the selection and arrangement of musical elements such as melody, harmony, rhythm, and form to create a cohesive and expressive musical structure. → "Composition" (painting) - refers to the arrangement and organization of visual elements within a painting or artwork. It involves the placement of forms, colors, lines, textures, and other visual components to create a balanced and visually pleasing composition.

Metonymic transfers can also occur within the painting terminological system, giving rise to new terms. Here are a few examples:

"Easel" can refer to both the wooden support used for holding a canvas while painting and the act of creating a painting itself.

"Palette" can denote both the mixing board for holding and blending paints and the range of colors used by an artist in a painting.

"Impasto" can refer to both the technique of applying thick layers of paint to create texture and the resulting texture itself in a painting.

These examples demonstrate how non-morphological methods and metonymic transfers contribute to the richness and versatility of painting terminology, allowing for nuanced descriptions and conceptual expansions within the realm of artistic expression.

In the general literary language, a term loses its specific terminological properties such as monosemy and stylistic neutrality. Various types of semantic transformations can occur, including the emergence of emotional and evaluative connotations and new metaphorical meanings. The term loses its functional, systemic, and semantic restrictions and acquires linguistic characteristics of everyday words, realizing all potentially existing possibilities of a linguistic sign. These characteristics are also inherent in painting terms. They manifest themselves in everyday speech, in scientific texts of related art research fields, in literary studies, in journalism, and in the language of literary works.

The process of the penetration of a term into non-professional texts can occur while preserving its primary meaning, with only the sphere of the term's functioning changing. The term adapts to new contexts, and these new contexts influence its initial semantic capacity. This process is known as despecialization. When painting terms enter the general literary language, alongside despecialization, there is a process called determinologization, which is determined by the development of figurative meanings in these terms. During this process, the terms adapt to new contexts and their original semantic capacity is influenced by these new environments.

The role of international terms in painting styles is crucial for the development and understanding of art across cultures. These terms serve as bridges between different linguistic and cultural contexts, enabling artists, scholars, and enthusiasts to communicate effectively and exchange ideas.

One of the main features of international terms is their ability to establish a common language that transcends borders. By using standardized terminology, artists can discuss painting styles with clarity and precision, ensuring a more accurate interpretation and analysis of artistic concepts. This linguistic consistency facilitates dialogue and collaboration, fostering a global artistic community.[7]

Additionally, international terms contribute to the preservation and promotion of diverse painting styles. By embracing these terms, artists can engage with artistic traditions from around the world, drawing inspiration from different cultures and incorporating them into their own work. This cross-cultural exchange leads to the emergence of innovative and hybrid styles, enriching the artistic landscape.

However, it is important to recognize the importance of local and regional artistic languages. While international terms facilitate communication, they should not overshadow or disregard the unique expressions and visual vocabulary of individual cultures. Finding a balance between the use of international terms and the preservation of local artistic identities is vital for maintaining cultural diversity and authenticity.

In conclusion, international terms play a vital role in painting styles, facilitating communication, encouraging artistic exchange, and nurturing creativity. Overall, the interdisciplinary approach employed in this article enhances the depth and breadth of the research, providing a more nuanced understanding of the borrowing and usage of art terms. It underscores the importance of collaboration and integration of knowledge from different disciplines in studying complex linguistic and cultural phenomena.

Список литературы:

1. Lotte D.S. Fundamentals of Scientific and Technical Terminology Construction. Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1961, 37-153 p.
2. Vinogradov, V. V. On the Basic Types of Phraseological Units in the Russian Language // Collection "A. A. Shakhmatov" (collection of articles and materials). Moscow, 1947. [Reprinted in the book: Vinogradov, V. V. Studies in Russian Grammar. Moscow, 1975.] 64 p.
3. Reformatsky, A.A. Introduction to Linguistics - Moscow: Aspect Press, 1996, 63 p.
4. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Fine Arts - St. Petersburg: Azbuka-Klassika, 2004-2009.
5. Norman B. Y. Language Theory. Moscow, 2003, 78-83 p.Vlasov V.G. New
6. Akhmanova, O.S. Dictionary of Linguistic Terms. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969, 571 p.
7. Minyar-Belorucheva, A.P., Ovchinnikova, N.A. "To the question of the origin and development of art history terms," Bulletin of the South Ural State University, Series "Linguistics," Issue 13, No. 22 (239 p.), Chelyabinsk: Publishing House, 2011.