IDENTIFYING THE EFFECTIVE FACTORS OF THE FLOURISHING OF ART IN THE TIMURID ERA OF HERAT

ABSTRACT

This research under the title of identifying the effective factors of the flourishing of art in the Timurid era of Herat, which was one of the critical periods in the modern history of Afghanistan; and the author's goal was to answer and analyze the factors affecting the flourishing of art. In this regard, this research is organized in several titles; Using the descriptive-analytical method, in the first place, the recognition of the flourishing of art and the role of the Timurid rulers and their attention to art is discussed, and in the second place, the effective factors of the growth and flourishing of art in this period are examined, and finally, in detail According to the hypotheses proposed in this research; The role of effective internal and external factors in the flourishing of art in this period has been discussed, including: the role of Timurid kings and princes, the role of court emirs and elders, and the role of the scientific, literary, political and social status of Herat city. It seems that the artistic and cultural background for the flourishing of art in the Timurid period in Khorasan, especially in Herat city, was favorable from the not-so-distant past, and the factors of the development of Timurid arts are investigated. The main question is what were the effective factors for the flourishing of Timurid art in this part of the Islamic period. The answers to these questions can be very effective in understanding the reasons for the growth and flourishing of the art of the Timurid period of Herat.

АННОТАЦИЯ

Данное исследование под названием «Выявление действенных факторов расцвета искусства в эпоху Тимуридов в Герате, которая была одним из переломных периодов в современной истории Афганистана»; и целью автора было ответить и проанализировать факторы, влияющие на расцвет искусства. В связи с этим данное исследование разделено на несколько названий; Используя описательно-аналитический метод, в первую очередь обсуждается признание расцвета искусства и роли тимуридских правителей и их внимания к искусству, а во вторую очередь - действующие факторы роста и расцвета искусства. в этот период рассматриваются и, наконец, подробно согласно гипотезам, предложенным в настоящем исследовании; Обсуждается роль эффективных внутренних и внешних факторов в расцвете искусства в этот период, в том числе: роль тимуридских царей и принцев, роль придворных эмиров и старейшин, а также роль научной, литературной, политической и общественной деятельности. Статус города Герат. Представляется, что художественный и культурный фон для расцвета искусства в период Тимуридов в Хорасане, особенно в городе Герат, был благоприятным из не столь далекого прошлого, и исследуются факторы развития Тимуридского искусства. Главный вопрос заключается в том, каковы были эффективные факторы расцвета искусства Тимуридов в эту часть исламского периода. Ответы на эти вопросы могут быть очень эффективными для понимания причин роста и расцвета искусства Тимуридов в Герате.

Keywords: identification, art, flourishing, Timurids, Herat.

Ключевые слова: идентификация, искусство, расцвет, Тимуриды, Сердце.

Introduction

Herat has been the birthplace, the guardian of culture and the center of spreading the greatest remnant of humanity's thought in various parts of history. This civilization has not only been prominent in the literary spheres of the country, but has also covered the population sphere of those countries in the region. Herat is from the same bright and attractive horizon of Ariana soil, which is located in the western corner of the country and proudly shines in the sky like the morning star of this rich cultural region. Herat is the region with greatness and historical glory, which has earned a name for itself and has preserved its existence with a world of honor and generosity. In 807 A.H., Timur's son Shah Rukh ascended to the throne in Herat and the center of the empire moved from Samarkand to Herat. And the children and grandchildren of Amir Timur ruled in Herat until 913 AH. This period of more than a hundred years is called the history of Afghanistan, the Timurid period of Herat, and the topic of our article belongs to this period. (Naimi, 1398: 1-5).

Although we have a brief overview of the history of Afghan art, it is worth noting that there have always been those throughout history who have provided the necessary conditions and platforms for artists to do their creative work. We call people "artistic supporters". In a more correct sense, the word "supporter" or "artist" can be defined as: "a person, device or institution that hires an artist, commissions him to work, and supports his activity." In other words, this group of people provides all the necessary material and spiritual conditions for the artist so that he can do his artistic work in a suitable condition. Of course, it should also be noted that in most cases, art education is not a result of mere interest in art, and usually includes political, economic, and social goals, goals that in most cases have a very positive effect on this kind of art education. . (Pakbaz, 1381:199).

According to the contents explained above, this question was always raised for me, why we always look for the lives and conditions of artists in our searches, while sometimes little attention is paid to the conditions of such people, art supporters, and worthy helpers. The artistic community of our country grows. In fact, in my opinion, a little attention to the political, economic and social conditions of each artistic period and the people who supported the artists of that period will remind us of remarkable results. Therefore, in this research, especially the artistic patrons of the Timurid period in Herat city have been taken into consideration by the author as a worthy art education, focusing on the personality characteristics of each of these people and examining and analyzing the political, economic, and cultural conditions. and social society of that time to find the factors that have caused the prosperity of this era in this city. The point that makes this kind of artists very prominent and interesting is that most of them were princes, courtiers and office holders who actually had a non-Khorasan race and they provided such support in a land that, through the head of their dynasty, Timur was conquered.

Based on such cultural and historical importance, I have written an article under the title of identifying the effective factors of the flourishing of art in the Timurid era of Herat, because the mentioned period caused changes in the social, artistic, literary and cultural structure of this country. Was. One of the most important achievements of this period is the flourishing of art, especially the flourishing of arts such as bookmaking, miniatures, gilding, calligraphy, painting, calligraphy, architecture, and the transformation of the city of Herat into one of the most important cities of Khorasan and the center of civilization. And the Central Asian culture has been mentioned because during the one-century rule of Shah Rukh, Sultan Abu Saeed and Sultan Hossein Baiqara, this city became the center of gathering of scientists and artists (a place of prosperity and flourishing of many arts) and gained great importance and scientific, literary, and political status. and its social status in the history of Afghanistan or Great Khorasan, which caused its fame, reputation and greatness to spread throughout the world at that time. Based on this, the key issue of the current research is to identify the factors that caused the growth and flourishing of art in the Timurid era.

The flourishing of art in the modern history of Afghanistan has been the turning point of the attention of the cultural elites, both domestic and foreign. Reflecting and elucidating the flourishing of art in the Timurid period of Herat is considered one of the important topics of the modern history of Afghanistan. The children of today and the future of the country have an urgent need to get full knowledge of the mentioned period in order to achieve the progress of the country, and by reflecting on this issue, it is of great value and importance for the future makers of this land, who are the generations of today and tomorrow, because of the experiences The past will be used for the dynamic future. Research on this issue will not only strengthen the artistic taste in the youth of this land, but they will feel responsible for the advancement and development of polite art. Meanwhile, research on this issue can provide fresh and new materials for the educated generation of Afghanistan.

In this article, great efforts have been made to examine the flourishing of the art of the Tamurid period by using several categories of reliable domestic and foreign sources, including the chronicles of Afghanistan and Iran during the modern centuries.

The role of Timurid princes in the flourishing of art

The period of Timurid rule in Afghanistan is considered to be the era of cultivating the art of painting, illustration, decoration, gilding, calligraphy, and all aspects of book making. The art of painting had been popular among the people of Mavar al-Nahr since the distant past, especially in the Great Khorasan, and after entering the Islamic religion in these areas, they used their artistic talents in decorating and gilding Islamic religious books, especially the Holy Quran, and painting Islamic mosques and tombs. In this way, in the entire Islamic world, they created works that had no equal in the history of human art.

From the remains of Chinese works and documents, it appears that the principles of the future Timurid art school were transferred from the court of the past kings to their court. During the period of Timur, painting was also popular, as we can see. After the seven-year attack and the conquest of the Ottoman Empire, Timur organized his grand celebration and victory assembly under a huge hare, decorated with gold etc, in two miles of Samarkand, and historians say about the description of the character and appearance of this colorful tent that the great character is amazing.

Although most Timurid princes and amirs respected the artists and tried to revive the art, sometimes there were dangers to the artistic group and their works. For example, when Amir Timur returned to his capital, Samarkand, in 807 AH and observed that the porch of the school was built higher than the porch of the Grand Mosque, he was enraged by this architectural defect, and both of its architects, Khwaja Dawood and Muhammad Jalad, were put to death.

Also, according to the author Majamal Fasihi, when the ruler was angry with the behavior of his son Miran Shah, Maulana Shamsuddin Mohammad Kakhki (who was the outstanding one of the time in the sciences of poetry and prose), and Ustad Qutbuddin Nayi, Habib Oudi, and Abdul Momen Govindeh (who were Pythagoras of the age and they were the leaders of the eras), hence they encouraged Amirzadeh to do wrong and forbidden, the temper of Sahib Qarani changed and he ruled politics and that group was killed because of this.

During the one-century rule of Shahrukh, Sultan Abu Saeed and Sultan Hussein, the beautiful city of Herat became the center of gathering of scientists and artists, and this city became the best place for the prosperity and flourishing of various arts such as bookmaking, miniatures, calligraphy gilding. The greatness and importance of the city of Herat in the land of Khorasan, its scientific, literary, political and social position in the history of Afghanistan or Greater Khorasan, which caused its fame, reputation and greatness to spread throughout the world at that time, especially during the Timurid era, attracted the attention of a large number of scientists. It had attracted scholars and historians. Many books have been written about political events and the description of literary and social developments and their geographical features (Mirjafari, 1395: 114).

Manuscripts of the Herat school, both in terms of subject matter and calligraphy, and in terms of artistic arrangement, i.e., image, gilding, painting, and embellishment, had many admirers and appreciators in that era, and were brought or sent as gifts to all parties. Among other things, it has been mentioned that: during the time of Sultan Hossein Bayqra, an ambassador was sent to Iraq, Mir Alishirnawai, including Nafais Tohfa, ordered the generals of Jami on behalf of Qazi Isa Sadr in such a context, and Diwan Maulana Jami was sent from Herat to the presence of Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II.

As a result of the artistic cultivation of Timurid princes, the art of calligraphy and writing progressed a lot. As they say, Maulana Nishapuri, Nastaliq writer and poet of Manshi Ajuba Dehr, on Sunday 12th of Rabi al-Awwal 824 in the presence of the public, wrote one hundred and twenty ten-line rhetorical letters in good Nastaliq style in the presence of the public from morning to evening.

Although the important breeding ground of all these arts, both during the reign of Shah Rukh and during the reign of his successors, was the city of Herat, but the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh, Mashhad, Qazvin, Isfahan, Shiraz were also among the great and glorious centers of this artistic renaissance of the Timurid period. As the effects of this renaissance had reached some small towns; The cities that in some way were the palaces of Timur's successors in the cities of Samarkand and Herat and their contemporary rulers such as the Khans of Maural Nahr and the Turkmens of Agh Quyunlu and then the Timurids of India were the ministers of these great governments and even had relations with the Ottomans. However, although these arts were considered the common heritage of all the people of these lands, in fact, it was Herat that was the center of these arts and spread light everywhere. (Habibi, 1355: 31-37)

 Not only the kings and princes of Timurid encouraged art and artists, but also a number of nobles and nobles of the court followed them, these artists used them to create the works of art they needed, and sometimes they themselves were skilled and masters in some art branches. . Among them, Maulana Sharifuddin Abdul Qahar Samarqandi, the brother of the author of Tahir al-Saadin, was considered one of the famous people of Shahrukh's court in Herat. (Abd al-Razzaq, 1353: 36)

The connection of Herat art center with other cultural and artistic centers of this period

Another effective factor that caused the growth and flourishing of art in the Timurid period was the role of the Herat school and its cultural connection with other artistic centers such as Mawra al-Nahr, Shiraz and Tabriz. The empire of Timur did not remain unified after him. But the connection between its cultural centers remained relative. The successors of Timur, who were brought up in the environment of science and art, nurtured and encouraged artists in their territories beyond the Nile, Khorasan, Iraq, etc. (Hossein, 1395: 117).

Although the city of Herat was the main breeding ground of knowledge and art both during the era of Shahrukh and during the period of his successors, the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh, Mashhad, Qazvin, Isfahan and Tabriz were also among the great and glorious centers of this artistic renaissance, as the works of this renaissance until Some small towns had also arrived. Cities that were somehow connected with the court of Timur's successors in the cities of Samarkand and Herat and their contemporary rulers. (Hossein, 117-118: 1395)

This artistic renaissance was considered the common heritage of all the people of these lands, but in fact it was Herat that was the center of these arts and spread light everywhere. This illumination was also extended to Gorkan India and the Ottoman Empire, and caused that in Safavid Iran, the legacy of 30 Timurid art styles became an international art style, this art school reached its ultimate evolution.

The role of kings and courtiers in the art of bookmaking and book design

The most important factor that caused the flourishing of the art of bookmaking and book layout during the Timurid era of Herat was the role of kings and courtiers and their attention to this art. Because the Timurians' attention and efforts regarding the art of books and libraries are among the issues that cannot be easily ignored. Because most of the kings and princes of this government were lovers of books and libraries, and among them people like Shahrukh, Sultan Hossein Baiqra and Valg Beik played an essential and first-rate role. Each of them, in turn, made great efforts for the development and advancement of the said art. With his cooperation and instructions, countless artists were always engaged in writing and copying books, and those books were decorated by religious scholars and master painters, and skilled scribes arranged precious covers for them, and through this art, they made a beautiful path. created that each had its own global value. (Safa, 1366: 12-4).

Among the arts related to bookmaking in the Timurid period, we can mention the art of bookbinding, which was promoted in the ancient city of Herat during the Timurid era. Baysanqar Mirza called Ustad Qawamuddin, a famous magliar and scholar, from Tabriz to Herat city. In the art of bookbinding, he used all kinds of art, and among other things, he did the work of bookbinding, which was an original work. In gilded binding, the cover was coated with gold and the back was gilded. Of course, Mevlana Mirek Esfahani, instead of Zarbi or Sharbi Motlai, which has garden flowers and bushes, desert, Simorgh shapes, words and beautiful birds, and it is called the famous Mirki style. (Ghabar, 1384: 13-14)

Cloud art paper was used to decorate the margins and sometimes the text of books, and types of illumination such as middle, dust, eye shadow, head shadow were used on the pages of exquisite books, and the art of photography and gilding was considered a part of the traditional art of bookmaking in the Timurid era. , by means of which lines and motifs were cut from paper and pasted on desired papers or pieces. Such works were done with a special tool and with full precision and artistry. During the Timurid period, there were many arts of writing, writing, gilding, calligraphy, calligraphy, poetry, painting, illustration, binding, etc., and these artists were known as scribes, madhabs, painters, joiners, qastor, maraq, poets, illustrators, and volumes. (Ahmed, 1352: 157).

During the Timurid period, the industry of binding and leatherwork was also taken into consideration and the mentioned art flourished like other fine arts, and this art, which had excellent designs, was used with the utmost precision. Good examples of binding and cover-making from the Timurid period, with the dates of 841 and 850, are available in the library of the Istanbul Metropolitan Museum of Istanbul (Mirjafari, 1395: 119).

The role of the establishment of Herat Library and Industrial Technical Association in the development of the art of painting

At the beginning, it seemed that the Timurid period must be very poor and destitute in terms of scientific works and paintings due to internal and external wars and many murders and looting, the instability of the situation and the lack of comfort and security, but the truth is not so. It was not devoid of painters, but this period can be counted among the periods in which science, literature and the art of painting flourished. The reason for this progress and development of the art of painting can be found in the support and glorification of the Timurid sultans and princes of the art of painting (Yarshater, 1334: 25).

This school was established in the 8th and 9th century of Hijri and it can be considered as the continuation of the Mongolian school, but more complete and more technical. Among the schools of painting that appeared in this period, one of the Herat schools is the most important and the most important of all the schools of that period. Timur himself established the largest painting and industrial centers in the city of Samarkand, which had been the capital since 771 AH, and with his efforts to settle it, he gathered the most famous artists and craftsmen from Khorasan (Afghanistan), Persia and beyond the Nile. (Naimi , 1398: 7-8).

As mentioned, Shahrukh Mirza was considered one of the first-rate supporters of the art of painting. After placing Herat as his capital, he hired many artists to copy and illustrate the books of his famous library. Khalil Naqash can be mentioned among them. At that time, he was considered one of the wonders of Arbaeh Asr and Sani Mani.

Baisanqar Mirza, Shahrukh's son, also established a library and school of writing techniques; Many artists, including painters, were working in this school, among whom we can mention Amir Shahi Sabzevari and Ghiyathuddin. Ghiyasuddin was part of a political delegation that was sent to China by Shah Rukh. The good and strong relationship between the court of Herat and the Chinese Ming Dynasty made the art of Chinese painting influential in the art school of Herat. Among these effects is the decoration of book covers in the traditional way of Chinese characters.

At first, painters of the Timurid court were mostly engaged in illustrating the Shahnameh, but later, the subjects that attracted their attention the most were love poems and mystical subjects favored by the famous poets of Great Khorasan, including Nizami and Saadi. In the Herat school, a new and fresh style was invented to paint the poems of these poets, in a way that fits the meaning of their lyrical and romantic poems. In this style, human figures were drawn in small delicate images, and its space was completely Khorasani, and its background was decorative and had a long horizon and spongy mountains. The creation of this style in painting, which was gradually depleted by foreign influence and became national and Khorasani, was owed to the Herat school of painting.

It can be pointed out that during the reign of Shahrukh Mirza, painting went through the stage of adapting and embracing foreign techniques and reached its growth stage, and then it was able to analyze what it had taken from others and make it its own inseparable part. The most important features of traditional technical style decorations can be seen in the faces and shapes drawn at the end of the 8th century of Hijri. In the next century, this excellent feature became the biggest feature of Herat Zameen school of painting. The most important features of the mentioned school were the beautiful landscapes of flowers and flower fields in spring, sponge-shaped mountains and hills, and the use of bright, bright colors that never wavered from one color to another, and their intensity and independence.

In addition, the painters of this period managed to obtain and observe acceptable and reasonable proportions between people and buildings or other landscapes. In particular, the Herat School's mints were very similar to each other in terms of style, and almost all the canvases show mountains at certain distances, along with the greenery that covers the ground, a long horizon, and new colors. The golden age of miniature making began in the Timurid and Herat periods by the artists of this period. Now in many museums of the world there are unique works from the Timurid period; Works that are unique in terms of beauty, coloring and precision in details. (Frayar, 1328: 53)

In the sources of the Timurid era, prominent painters such as Seddi Ahmad Naqash, Khwaja Ali Musar, Maulana Amir Khalil, Khwaja Ghiyathuddin, Darvish Mohammad Khorasani, Amir Ruhollah known as Mirk Naqash, Ustad Qasim Ali Shiregh Gosha and Maulana Haji Mohammad and their work methods are discussed. Is. But it is certain that the greatest painter of the Timurid era and all Islamic eras was Kamaluddin Behzad, who was born in 854 in Herat city. He was orphaned by his parents when he was a child, and the teacher Mirek Naqash, who was the librarian of Sultan Hossein Baiqara, took care of him. Master Benasamad was an artist and talented and benefited from Mirek's art. Mirek Naqash's education and attention on the one hand, and Behzad's natural talent on the other hand, and the art-loving environment of Herat city all contributed to this talented artist's career rising and reaching a place he had no equal in. (Amir Ahmad, 1352: 133-134).

One of the other effective factors that influenced the growth and flourishing of the painting art of this period was the role of Master Kamaluddin Behzad. Due to the support of Amir Ali Shirnavai and Sultan Hossein Baiqara, the said teacher entered their court. With his miniatures and paintings, he kept Sultan Hossein Baiqara's mood happy. And one of the emirs of that period, named Amir Baba Mahmud, who had a strange and unusual face, has narrated that the teacher Kamaluddin Behzad depicted his face in different situations and made the king happy and smile. (Wasfi, 1351: 145- 146). 

Amir Ali Shirnavai was also very fond of Ustad Kamaluddin Behzad, they say: Ustad Behzad brought an illustrated book to Amir Ali Shirnavai's Majlis, containing various trees and handsome chickens on its branches, and on all sides flowing streams and wonderful zingari flowers and the face of Marughob Mir (Alishir). As if leaning on a cane and placing rich layers in front of him. Mir Alishir was amazed after watching that wonderful picture and asked the audience to give their opinion about it. One of them said: I wanted to reach out and pick a flower and put it on my bed. But I thought that the chickens should not fly from the trees. Each of them said something, and Amir Alishirnawai said: I was about to present the gold plates to the audience. In any case, Amir Alishirnawai Qadri was so impressed by the grace and beauty of the image that he gifted a horse with a saddle, bridle and appropriate clothes to Master Kamaluddin Behzad (Mirjafari, 1395: 122-123).

In addition, Babur Shah, the governor of Gurkan of India, was also very surprised by the elegance and artistic work of Ustad Kamaluddin Behzad and said about him: Ustad Kamaluddin Behzad is the greatest and most famous painter. It has become its own art. Master Behzad is skilled in painting and knowing the properties and combinations of colors and in changing different emotional states, and especially in drawing the shapes of buildings and natural landscapes, his work has reached the limit of miracles. In his pictures, there is peace and good taste, innovation and skill, and in its composition and decoration and the coherence of colors, master Kamaluddin Behzad has revealed the perfection of Timurid painting. According to some critics, in Behzad's pictures, a large amount of the element of divine love and the position of clergy and holiness can be seen, and the reason may be that the profession of Sufism had reached its peak during Behzad's life (Khalili, 1320: 111-113).

However, after the extinction of the Timurid dynasty, Ustad Kamaluddin Behzad worked for the Fatih Uzbek Sultan, Shibani Khan, and until 916, when the city of Herat was captured by Shah Ismail I, he stayed in this city and engaged in painting and drawing. had After the conquest of Herat, the Safavid king took him to Tabriz and started painting in this city and gained world fame. He was appointed as the head of the royal library and the Safavid court reached a level of greatness and pride, to the extent that no painting in Islamic history could describe his position and dignity. (Mirjafari, 1395: 123).

Also, in the period of Baysanqar Mirza, the city of Herat witnessed the growth and flourishing of art. Because Baisanqar Mirza had a great interest in science and literature and all the techniques of fine arts, including poetry, music, painting, and architecture, and with the support of that, various arts grew and prospered in this city. He is considered one of the greatest bibliophiles in the world. He provided a vast device for copying, arranging and enlarging books. More than forty prominent calligraphers and painters, under the leadership of Maulana Jafar Tabrizi, worked continuously in his library. Maulana Jafar was obliged to regularly report the work of the library and its books to Sultan Baisanqar Mirza. Baysangar spent a lot of capital in this direction and the books that were written and edited during his time and under his supervision did not consider themselves carefully in terms of elegance. The most important literary and artistic work of his is the arrangement of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and the introduction which was written with reference to the Shahnameh and is known as Baysangar's introduction (Yarshater, 1334: 52).

Dost Muhammad, the librarian of the Timurid era, has provided noteworthy information about the art of illustration and other related arts of that period, as well as the attention of the Timurids, especially the special interest of Baysanqar Mirza towards artists and his support for them. The librarian wrote about the painter named Maulana Khalil Mosvar and called him the master of Kamaluddin Behzad Sani. Like Master Behzad, he was a great and skilled master in painting, and Dost Muhammad called him the only artist of his time and called his name Mir Khalil (Mirjafari, 1395: 124-125).

However, there is no doubt that the golden age of Afghan painting begins from the time of the Timurids of Herat, i.e. Ahed Shahrukh, Baisanqar, Ibrahim Sultan, his sons and Iskandar bin Omar Sheikh, because it is during this period that the paintings of Herat adopted the techniques and technical styles of Eastern painting. There was mutual exchange too. For example, Aqsi means that China has adapted, digests, analyzes and becomes independent and powerful. (Naimi, 1398: 8-9).

Among other important and fundamental issues that had an important impact on the development of painting, illustration and writing in Afghanistan there was the establishment of a library and a technical and industrial association that Shahrukh founded in Herat and his son Baisangar established another library and association at the same time which almost had the form of an academy of crafts or a conservatory of fine arts, Baysangar gathered in this association the masters of the art of gilding in painting, illustration, bookbinding and bookmaking, and therefore, naturally and by itself, the art of painting, drawing and calligraphy from several centers. Other industries at that time like in Tabriz, Samarkand and Shiraz were moved to Herat. (Naimi, 1398: 8-9).

In short, Afghan painting took the last steps of progress and perfection during the Timurid period. With the fall of the art-loving Timurid dynasty in the early 10th century AH, the Uzbek raids across the river, and the wars with the participation of the Persian Safavids, the light of this art and beautiful arts, i.e. book writing and painting, and book publishing, like other Afghan arts and crafts, went out. But we should also mention that although the city of Herat lost its centrality in Afghanistan and the burning torch of industry in this region was extinguished, it is still a reason to be happy that because of the efforts of its worthy sons like Master Behzad Heravi in this industry it did not disappear and for a long time industrial schools were established in Fars and abroad and even in India, which will forever be recorded in the history of the industries of those countries. (ibid., 9-11).

Cultural interactions between Herat and China and its role in the development of art and painting

As two ancient lands in culture and civilization, Afghanistan and China have had cultural relations for a long time. The works obtained from the city of Turfan, in Turkestan, China, among the Uyghurs, who were influenced by the culture of Afghanistan, are a proof of this claim. In the period after the adoption of Islam, this process continued and in the Mongol era these interactions increased in terms of the integrity of the Mongol Empire from China to Afghanistan. Quant’s tribe and his successors, whom the Chinese call Yuan, were influenced by Chinese culture in that country. In Khorasan too, Ilkhans became popular in Khorasan culture and abandoned their nomadic nature. These two Mongolian families established a wide connection between Afghanistan and China, so that a favorable ground for cultural interactions was created, especially in the fields of painting and pottery. (Ghabar, 1388: 92-93).

At the end of his life, Amirtimur Lang wished to conquer China, but his death stopped him. According to Clavikho's report, despite the dark relations between Iran and China during Timur's time, commercial relations between the two countries were very prosperous (Arabshah, 1369: 182-188).

The Meng dynasty in China and the Timurid dynasty in Khorasan were both new dynasties that succeeded in overthrowing the Mongols in their territories. Therefore, in the new conditions, these cultural interactions continued. Especially during the reign of Timur's son Shahrukh and after him during the reign of his successor Baysangr, these relations became stronger and they sent ambassadors and envoys to each other's courts and it is strongly believed that they presented their artistic masterpieces to each other as gifts. The witness of these exchanges is the works and technical styles of China, whose influence is fully evident in Herat's technical school, especially in the cover making, which is used to decorate the Chinese superstitious animals. The most important delegation of ambassadors was sent to China in 832 AD. In this trip, Shadi Khawaja along with 200 people were commissioned to travel to China by Mirza Shahrukh and by Mirza Baisanqar, Sultan Ahmad and Ghiyasuddin Naqash along with 150 people. Khwaja gladly prepared a comprehensive description from the first day to the last of the trip, which is very detailed and charming, and includes the layout of the roads, the Great Wall of China, Buddhist temples, the receptions and formal parties of the court, all kinds of musical instruments. (Mirjafari, 1395:239-240). 

The study of this report, which is mentioned in Al-Saadeen's information, is necessary to know the Chinese society and the economic and cultural capabilities of this country in that era and the type of interactions between the two countries. And due to the visits of Akhrasani to China, the cultural manifestations of the two countries were manifested in each other. In the works of many historians and poets of this period, the virtues of China have been discussed everywhere. Also, the influence of various Chinese arts, such as painting, pottery and porcelain, can be clearly seen in this period. It should be mentioned that the Khorasanians were not just imitators, they changed and used the artistic and cultural teachings of other nations according to their taste.

Therefore, a new style emerged in the Khorasan decorative painting of that day, which later became known as the Chinese style, although it was not the same as the Chinese style, but it was influenced by Chinese art, just as this influence was clear and clear in the Buddhist painting of Khorasan centuries ago. It was visible, especially during the Timurid era, the artistic, cultural and political relations of Khorasan with China became warmer and newer, so that in 1419 AD, a delegation composed of the representatives of Shahrukh and the princes of Timurid sent Shad Khwaja, Shahrukh's representative to the court of the Ming Empire. It had taken the place of the Mongol Empire in China since the 14th century, and was sent to the capital of China, Peking. 

One of the important members of this delegation is Khwaja Ayyathuddin Naqash Herati, as the representative of Baisanqar Mirza, Shahrukh's son, who examined all the sights and industrial advantages of the picnic court and wrote the delegation's travelogue. The other members of this committee were Tajuddin Badakhshi, the representative of Shah Malik, the local amir of Badakhshan, and his Jatun, the representative of Sultan Ahmed Mirza, Erdovan, and others. It is natural for a painter who goes to China like Ghiyasuddin and stays in the imperial court for five months, he cannot ignore the paintings of such a country or forget the impact he has in his homeland. This delegation arrived in the Chinese capital Peking from Herat city in 822 lunar year and stayed at the emperor's court for five months. Among the gifts that this delegation presented to the emperor was a black horse that the emperor liked and rode himself, but the horse He rebelled and the emperor fell in and was impressed and asked the board about the qualities and privileges of this gallant horse. Shahrukh's representative immediately replied that because this horse was for Amir Timur, Shahrukh wanted to stay in the emperor's stable. However, during their stay, the delegation carefully studied Darbar Vespah, Vashahr, Wajah, Jalal, and Jamal Picknig. They saw the following weapons in the Chinese army: Nakhch, Durbash, Zhubin, Hariyeh, Khesht-Polad, Tabrizin, Spear, Sword, and Sword in Askarik music. Dahl, damame, cymbals, reeds and bells were in the room of these objects such as Atlas pillows and sleeping bags, chairs, braziers, fire pits, cauldrons, knives and spoons. (Ghbar, 1389: 280).

Conclusion

Amir Timur Lang's invasion and attack on Afghanistan caused the destruction of the beautiful cities of our dear country, Afghanistan, like during the Mongol period. During his campaigns, Timur tried to provide his own and his army's interests to different regions, in this sense, he always tried to turn the conquered regions, the land across the river, especially the capital Samarkand, into his dream city. Therefore, by transferring artists, architects, and craftsmen from different cities of Khorasan (Afghanistan, Iran, India) to the capital, he turned Samarkand into a city. A variety of subsequent rulers appreciated art and avoided war and bloodshed, for this reason, from the very beginning of coming to power, they tried to compensate for the destruction caused by their forefather's attacks, they rebuilt the cities and villages and the destroyed places. They created economic prosperity, cultural prosperity and peace, and turned the capital city of Herat into a prosperous city and the center of scholars and artists; this is not only true in Herat but also in other cities of Shahrukh and Sultan Hossein's territories, including Samarkand and Shiraz, due to the presence of princes who ruled in these cities, it can be seen. This love for the art of friendship continued for a long time. Therefore, they tried to settle the cities of their government in order to create the necessary economic support for their political and cultural activities. For this reason, the situation in the economy of the countries under the rule of Shahrukh progressed in most of its sectors, such as trade and agriculture, which led to an increase in the level of general well-being and the scientific, cultural and artistic development of his territory. The same amount of talents and artistic taste are cultivated in it, but in the absence of prosperity and security of talents, non-artistic violence is cultivated in humans, from here we can say that one of the effective factors that caused the flourishing of art in this period is prosperity, peace and peace. There was stability in Timurid society.

Supporting culture and art was one of the important political programs of the Timurids. It is clear that the stability of the ruling power played a fundamental role in providing conditions for the art creation of artisans and artists. Along with the Timurid amirs, many courtiers and members of this family had a wide horizon regarding art and supporting artists. As many buildings were established with the support of several wives of Timur and Shahrukh.

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